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ANIMAL 
HUSBANDRY 
FOR SCHOOLS 




HARPER 



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L. H. BAI LEV 

EDITOR 



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XTbe IRural Uext>:JBoofe Series 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS 



®|)e Eurai Cext=i3ooft Series 

Lyon and Fippin, Principles op Soil Man- 
agement. 

Warren, Elements op Agriculture. 

Mann, Beginnings in Agriculture. 

J. F. Duggar, Southern Field Crops. 

B. M. Duggar, Plant Physiology, with 
Special Reference to Plant Production. 

Warren, Farm Management. 

Harper, Animal Husbandry for Schools. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
FOR SCHOOLS 



BY 



MERRITT W. HARPER 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE 

NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 

AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1913 

All rights reserved 



SFfc5 



Copyright, 1913, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1913. 



Nortooofi $ress 

J. S. dishing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



©CI.A347677 



PREFACE 

This book is designed to introduce students to the study of Ani- 
mal Husbandly in the schools, and also in colleges when only a 
short time can be given to the subject. Possibly it may be useful to 
the farmer or general reader who desires a book treating of the 
several classes of farm animals. 

Now that agriculture is becoming recognized as an educational 
subject, there is an increasing demand for the subject-matter in- 
volved. Especially is there a demand for knowledge concerning the 
farm animals. It has been the aim of the author to cover the work 
very largely from a practical point of view. This is done with the 
thought that the pupils should be brought into close touch with 
actual farm affairs. In all courses of study involving the considera- 
tion of material objects, it is important to recognize that the pupil 
should study not only about the thing, but should study the object 
itself. In Animal Husbandry, especially, the importance of study- 
ing animals in all their circumstances cannot be too strongly recom- 
mended. Unfortunately this is not always possible, since many of 
the schools lack facilities and are far removed from the farms. 

The arrangement of the subject-matter in a textbook of this class 
is important. There is utter lack of agreement among Animal Hus- 
bandry instructors as to the method of presenting the subject. The 
method here employed was chosen after careful consideration as the 
most adaptable for beginners. Each class of farm animals is con- 
sidered separately, the subject-matter being arranged under similar 
chapter headings. This has been done to clarify the text, and to 
make it possible for the teacher to consider the types and breeds of 
the several classes, the judging, feeding, management, and the like, 
without respect to a particular class, if he so desires. 

The author realizes that it is often difficult to introduce Animal 
Husbandry into the schools, largely because of the lack of facilities. 



vi Preface 

With this difficulty in mind, many exercises or practicums are sug- 
gested in the Appendix, in order that the teacher may choose such as 
he requires, or as his facilities permit. At least one exercise should 
be used each week. The exercises may be considered in any order 
to suit the convenience of the teacher. Neither the substance nor 
the form here proposed is vital. The teacher can modify them to 
suit his needs or plan others along similar lines. 

When at all convenient, the teacher and pupils should visit stables, 
where animals are housed. This will provide an opportunity to 
study at first hand the subject-matter discussed in the text, and will 
add greatly to the interest and value of the work. 

Realizing the difficulties of presenting Animal Husbandry in the 
schools, the author will be glad to correspond with teachers con- 
cerning their work, and also to receive criticisms or suggestions as to 
changes they find desirable in the text. 

M. W. HARPER. 

Ithaca, N. Y. 

April 80, 1913. 



CONTENTS 

PART ONE — HORSES 
CHAPTER I 

The Breeds of Horses 3-33 

The light type — The heavy type. 

The Light Breeds of Horses 4 

The Thoroughbred horse — History of the Thoroughbred 
horse — Description of the Thoroughbred horse — Famous Thor- 
oughbred races — English track records — American track rec- 
ords — The Arabian horse — The Arabian compared with the 
Thoroughbred — The American Saddle horse — The American 
Saddle horse compared with the Thoroughbred — The Standard- 
bred horse — History of the Standardbred horse — Hambleto- 
nian 10 — The Standardbred compared with the Thoroughbred — 
Trotting and pacing records. 

The Coach Breeds of Horses 14 

The Hackney Coach horse — Description of the Hackney — 
The French Coach horse — Classes of horses in France — Tne 
French Coach compared with the Hackney — The German Coach 
horse — German Coach compared with the Hackney — The 
Cleveland Bay Coach horse — Cleveland Bay compared with the 
Hackney. 

The Draft Breeds of Horses 20 

The Percheron draft horse — Description of the Percheron — 
The French draft horse — The Clydesdale draft horse — Clydes- 
dale compared with the Percheron — The Shire draft horse — 
Shire compared with the Percheron — The Belgian draft horse 
— Belgian compared with the Percheron — The Suffolk draft 
horse — Suffolk compared with the Percheron. 

The Pony Breeds of Horses 29 

The Shetland pony — Welsh pony compared with the Shet- 
land — Arabian and Hackney ponies — Mexican and Indian 
ponies. 

The Breeds of Donkeys 31 

The mule and hinny. 

Questions 32 

vii 



viii Contents 

CHAPTER II 

PAGES 

Judging Horses . . 34-53 

How to estimate the Age of a Horse 34 

Colt — Three years old — Four years old — Five years old — 
Six years old — Seven years old — Eight years old — Nine years 
old — Ten years old — Eleven years old — Aged horses. 

Detecting Unsoundness 38 

Blemish — Unsoundness — Impaired vision — Defective hear- 
ing — Poll-evil — Sweenied shoulders — Fistulse — Splints — 
Ring-bone — Side-bone — Scratches — Unsound hoofs — Thor- 
oughpin — Spavin — Curb — Forging and overreaching. 

. The Horse Score-card 40 

Method of using the score-card — Rules of scoring — Score- 
card for horses — Measurements of horses. 

General Appearance in Light Horses 44 

The height — Form — Action — Quality — Temperament. 
Detail Characters or Features of a Light Horse .... 47 

Head — Neck — Chest — Shoulders — Arms — Elbows — 
Forearms — Knees — Cannons — Fetlocks — Pasterns — Feet — 
Ribs — Body — Loins — Croup — Thigh — Hocks . 

Judging a Heavy Horse 50 

General appearance in heavy horses — Weight — Form — 
Action — Market classes of horses. 
Questions 52 



CHAPTER III 

Principles of Feeding 54-70 

Food 54 

Use of food — Composition of food — Water — Ash — Protein 
— Carbohydrates — Fat. 

Functions of Food Materials . 58 

Water — Ash — Protein — Carbohydrates — Fat. 

Digestibility of Food 60 

Digestion — Size of digestive organs — Digestible nutrients — 
Digestibility of food materials. 

Maintenance Rations and Productive Rations 63 

Maintenance rations — Productive rations — Feeding-stand- 
ards for farm animals. 



Contents ix 

PAGES 

Balanced Eation 65 

Nutritive-ratio — Computing rations — Wolff-Lehman Method 

— Armsby's method. 

Questions . 69 

CHAPTER IV 

Feeding the Horse . . 71-80 

Food requirements for work — Regularity in feeding — Order 
of supplying food — Watering the horse — Salt — Individual 
rations. 

Feeding the Work Horse 73 

Amount to feed — Method of feeding — Cost of a ration — 
Feeding mules — Feeding the brood mare. 

Feeding the Foal 76 

Food for the young foal — Feeding grain — Weaning the 
foal — Sample rations for the horse. 
Questions 80 

CHAPTER V 

Care and Management of Horses 81-102 

Plan for improvement — Cooperative breeding — Selecting 
breeding stock — The breed and type — Uniformity — Sound- 
ness — Registration of farm animals. 

Grooming and Care 85 

Care of the horse's teeth — Clipping — Bedding the horse — 
Blankets — Stable blanket — Outdoor blanket — Care of the 
feet — Growth of hoof — Shoeing — Treating sick horses — 
Feeding sick horses. 

Training the Colt 90 

Handling the colt — Training to the halter — Training to 
drive with lines — Training to the uses of the bit — Impor- 
tance of a good mouth — Bitting the colt — Harnessing the 
colt — Hitching double — Hitching single. 

Harness and Harnessing 97 

The bridle — The bit — The check-rein — Fitting the collar 

— Breast harness — Fitting the back-strap and crupper — Fly 
nets — Caring for harness. 

Questions 102 



Contents 



PART TWO — CATTLE 

CHAPTER VI 

Breeds of Cattle . . 105-129 

The dairy type — The beef type. 

The Major Breeds of Dairy Cattle 108 

Jersey dairy cattle — Inspection of Jersey cattle — Descrip- 
tion of Jersey cattle — Jersey milk and butter-fat records — 
Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle — Description of Holstein-Frie- 
sian cattle — Holstein-Friesian milk and butter-fat records — 
Guernsey dairy cattle — Description of Guernsey cattle — 
Guernsey milk and butter-fat records — Ayrshire dairy cattle 

— Description of Ayrshire cattle — Ayrshire milk and butter- 
fat records. 

The Minor Breeds of Dairy Cattle 118 

Dutch-Belted cattle — Brown Swiss cattle — French-Cana- 
dian cattle — The Kerry cattle. 

The Major Breeds of Beef Cattle 119 

Shorthorn beef cattle — Shorthorn families — Description 
of Shorthorn cattle — Hereford beef cattle — Hereford com- 
pared with the Shorthorn — Aberdeen Angus beef cattle — 
Aberdeen Angus families — Aberdeen Angus compared with 
Shorthorn — Galloway beef cattle — Galloway compared with 
the Shorthorn. 

The Minor Breeds of Beef Cattle 126 

Polled Durham cattle — Devon cattle — Red Polled cattle 

— Sussex cattle — West Highland cattle. 

Questions 128 



CHAPTER VII 

Judging Cattle ........... 130-143 

How to estimate the age of cattle — Examination of the 
horns. 

Judging Dairy Cattle • . . . . 131 

Score-card for dairy cattle — Measurements of cattle. 

General Characteristics in Dairy Cattle 133 

Form — Quality — Constitution — Temperament. 



Contents xi 



Detail Characteristics of a Dairy Cow 135 

Head — Neck — Forequarters — Body — Hindquarters — 
Udder — Milk veins — Milk signs. 

Judging Beef Cattle 137 

Score-card for Beef Cattle. 
General considerations of Beef Cattle ...... 139 

Form of beef cattle — Quality of beef cattle — Condition of 
the feeder — Uniformity among feeders. 

Detail Characteristics of Beef Cattle 140 

Head — Neck — Forequarters — Body — Hindquarters — 
Fat steer — Market classes of beef cattle — Cuts of beef. 
Questions 143 

CHAPTER VIII 

Feeding Dairy Cattle ......... 144-156 

Food requirements for milk. 

Effect of Food on the Composition of Milk 145 

Effect of food on total solids — Effect of food on the per- 
centage of fat — Food and flavor of milk — Order of supplying 
food — Effect of food on quantity of milk — Watering the 
milking cow. 

Feeding the Milking Cow 148 

Summer feeding of dairy cattle — Soiling — Winter feeding 
of dairy cattle — Concentrated feeds — Dry forage — Succu- 
lent feeds — Silage — Roots and tubers. 

The Calf 152 

Feeding the calf — Danger of overfeeding calf — Calf on 
whole milk — Calf on skim-milk — Removing horns from 
young calves — Sample rations for the dairy cow. 
Questions 155 

CHAPTER IX 

Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 157-174 

Sanitary Milk 157 

The cow — The stables — Milk-house — Milk utensils — 
Milking — Milking machines — Milk-records — Method of 
keeping records — Value of milk-records. 
Testing Milk for Butter-fat 161 

Sampling the milk — Using the acid — Whirling the bottles 
— Reading the percentage of fat — Testing associations — 
General plan of organization — Records of performance and 



Xll 



Contents 



of breeding — The individual animal the unit of improvement 
— Formation of the dairy herd. 

The Dairy Barn . 166 

Light in abundance should enter the dairy barn — Ventila- 
tion essential to health — King's system Of ventilation — Win- 
dow ventilation — Floors are best made of cement — The silo — 
The size of the silo — Filling the silo. 

Diseases of Cattle 171 

Tuberculosis — Methods of infection — Prevention of tuber- 
culosis. 

Questions 173 

CHAPTER X 

Feeding Beef Cattle 175-187 

Essentials of Feeding Cattle . 175 

Age at which to feed cattle — Form for feeding cattle — 
Condition of feeding cattle — Quality of feeding cattle — Uni- 
formity in feeding cattle — Food requirements for beef — Win- 
tering stockers and feeders — Roughage increases feeding ca- ' 
pacity. 

Summer Feeding on Pasture 180 

Method of summer feeding — How to turn to grass — Feed- 
ing grain to cattle on pasture — The pastures. 

Winter Feeding in Drylot . . 183 

Feeding grain to cattle in dry-lot — Baby-beef — Feeding 
for baby-beef production — Sample rations for fattening cattle. 
Questions 187 



CHAPTER XI 

Care and Management of Beef Cattle 

Plan of improvement — Cooperative grading-up — Raise 
heifer calves from best cows — Farms for fattening cattle. 

Equipment for Summer Feeding 

Pasture — Feed-bunk — Self-feeder — Shades — Water — 
Salt. 

Equipment for Winter Feeding 

Shelter for winter feeding — The feed-pot — Platform for 
feed-bunks — Dry-forage-rack — Water-tanks. 
Questions 



188-194 



189 



191 



193 



Contents xiii 



PART THREE — SHEEP 
CHAPTER XII 

PAGES 

Breeds of Sheep 197-221 

The fine- wool type — The mutton type. 

The Fine-wool Breeds of Sheep 199 

American Merino fine-wool sheep — Description of Ameri- 
can Merino fine-wool sheep — The American Merino fleeces 

— Delaine Merino fine-wool sheep — Delaine Merino com- 
pared with American Merino — Rambouillet fine-wool sheep 
— Rambouillet compared with the American Merino. 

The Mutton Breeds of Sheep 204 

Southdown mutton sheep — Description of the Southdown 
sheep — Shropshire mutton sheep — Shropshire compared 
with the Southdown — Hampshire mutton sheep — Hamp- 
shire compared with Southdown — Oxford Down mutton 
sheep — Oxford Down compared with Southdown — Suffolk 
Down mutton sheep — Suffolk Down compared with South- 
down — Dorset-Horned mutton sheep — Dorset-Horned com- 
pared with Southdown — Cheviot breed — Cheviot compared 
with the Southdown. 

Long-wool Breeds of Mutton Sheep 214 

Leicester long- wool sheep — Description of Leicester sheep 

— Cotswold long-wooled sheep — Cotswold compared with 
the Leicester — Lincoln long-wooled sheep — Lincoln com- 
pared with Leicesters — Black-faced Highland sheep. 

Goats 219 

Angora goat — Milk goat. 
Questions 221 

CHAPTER XTII 

Judging Sheep 222-231 

Catching sheep — Holding sheep — How to estimate the 
age of sheep — Score-card for sheep. 

General Appearance of Sheep 223 

Form — Condition and weight — Quality — Constitutional 
vigor — Uniformity. 

Detail Characters of Sheep 226 

Head — Neck — Shoulders — Chest — Body — Rump — Leg 



xiv Contents 



of mutton — Legs — Examination of the fleece — Market 
classes of sheep — Cuts c f ; utton. 
Questions 231 

CHAPTER XIV 

Feeding Sheep 232-245 

Sheep are delicate — Food requirements for sheep. 

Feeding the Flock 234 

The flock in summer — Pasture for sheep — Turning to 
pasture — Change in pasture — Providing shade — The use of 
sown pastures — The flock in winter — The winter ration — 
Exercise — Care of the feet — Bedding. 

Fattening Sheep 238 

Growing winter lambs — The winter quarters for winter- 
lamb production — Feeding the lambs — Growing spring lambs 

— Feeding lambs in the fall — Getting the lambs on full feed 

— Fattening lambs in winter — Feeding in the semi-arid 
West — Feeding in the corn-belt — -Feeding in the East — 
Sample rations for fattening sheep. 

Questions 244 

CHAPTER XV 

Care and Management or Sheep 246-256 

Plan of improvement — Cooperative breeding — Choosing 
breeding stock — Type — Uniformity. 

Dipping Sheep 248 

Importance of dipping — The dipping vat — How dips are 
used — Frequency of dipping. 

Shearing Sheep 250 

When to shear — Hand shearing — Machinery shearing — 
Tying the wool — Docking the lambs. 

Practical Sheep Barns 253 

Ventilation — Drainage — The interior arrangement — The 
feed-racks — The quantity of bedding — The sheep lot. 
Questions . ■ 256 

PART FOUR — SWINE 

CHAPTER XVI 

Breeds of Swine 259-274 

Lard type — Bacon type. 



Contents 



xv 



Pure Lard Breeds of Swine 

Poland China lard-hog — Description of Poland China hog 

— Berkshire lard-hog — Berkshire compared with Poland 
China — Duroc-Jersey lard-hog — Duroc-Jersey compared 
with Poland China — Chester White lard-hog — Chester White 
compared with Poland China — Hampshire lard-hog — Hamp- 
shire compared with Poland China — Essex lard-hog — Essex 
compared with Poland China — Small Yorkshire lard-hog — 
Suffolk lard-hog. 

Intermediate breeds of swine ....... 

Cheshire hog — Description of the Cheshire — Victoria hog 

— Victoria compared with Cheshire — Middle Yorkshire hog. 
Pure Bacon Breeds of Swine 

Large Yorkshire bacon-hog — Description of the Large 
Yorkshire — Tarn worth bacon-hog — Tarn worth compared 
with Large Yorkshire. 
Questions 



PAGES 

260 



268 



271 



273 



CHAPTER XVII 

Judging Swine 275-283 

Score-card for swine. 

General appearance of Lard- hogs 275 

Form — Weight and condition — Quality — Constitution — 
Uniformity. 

Detail Characters of the Lard-hog 278 

Head — Jowls — Neck — Shoulders — Back and loin — Sides 
— Rump — Hams — Legs. 

Judging Bacon-hogs 281 

Condition — Form — Sides — Market classes of swine — Cuts 
of pork. 
Questions 282 

CHAPTER XVIII 

The Feeding op Swine 284-294 

Food requirements for swine. 

Preparing Food for Swine 285 

Grinding feed — Soaking the feed — Cooking the feed — 
Feeding the pigs — Weaning the pigs. 



xvi Contents 

PAGES 

Feeding the Breeding Herd 287 

Feeding the herd in summer — Pasture for swine — Roots 

for swine — Pumpkins and squashes — Feeding the herd in 

winter. 

Fattening Swine . . 289 

Feeding the lard-hog — Feeding the lard-hog in summer — 

Feeding the lard-hog in winter — Feeding the bacon-hog — 

Summer feeding on pasture — Winter feeding in dry-lot — 

Sample rations for swine. 
Questions 293 

CHAPTER XTX 

Care and Management of Swine 295-304 

Plan of improvement — Cooperative breeding — Selecting 
breeding stock — The type — Uniformity — Dipping swine. 

Shelter for Swine 299 

The large hog-house — The individual hog-house — The 
hog lot — Hog-wallows — Diseases of swine — Hog cholera — 
Prevention of cholera — Quarantine lot. 
Questions 303 



PART FIVE — POULTRY 

CHAPTER XX 

Breeds op Poultry 307-320 

The egg type — The meat type — The general purpose type 
— Ornamental type. 
The Egg Type of Fowls 308 

Characteristics of egg breeds. 
The Meat Type of Fowls 310 

Characteristics of meat breeds. 
General Purpose Breeds of Fowls 313 

Characteristics of general purpose breeds. 
The Ornamental Breeds of Fowls 316 

Characteristics of ornamental breeds. 
Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, and Guinea-Fowls . . . . 317 

Turkeys — Ducks — Geese — Guinea-fowls. 
Questions 320 



Contents xvii 

CHAPTER XXI 

PAGES 

Judging Poultry 321-326 

How to estimate the age of poultry — Young fowls — Old 
fowls. 

Methods of Judging Poultry 321 

Comparative judging — Score-card judging — Score-card 
for poultry. 

Detail Characters of Fowls 324 

Symmetry — Weight — Condition — Head — Comb — Wat- 
tles and ear-lobes — Neck — Back — Breast — Body and Fluff 
Wings — Tail — Legs and toes. 
Questions 326 

CHAPTER XXII 

Feeding Poultry 327-336 

Essentials of Feeding Poultry . 327 

Grit and mineral matter — Meat scraps — Green food — 
Preparation of grain — Nutritive ratio. 

Feeding Young Chickens 328 

Frequency of feeding — Amount to feed — Sorting uneven 
flocks — Exercise. 

Feeding for Egg Production . 330 

Feed a variety — Amount to feed — Condition of fowls — 
Mineral matter. 

Feeding for Meat Production 333 

Feeding the fowls — Kind of food — Broilers — Roasters — 
Sample rations for poultry. 
Questions . . 335 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Care and Management of Poultry 337-348 

Improvement of fowls — Incubation — Natural incubation 
— Artificial incubation — Brooders. 

Poultry Houses 340 

Location of house — Size — Colony house — Long house — 
Scratching-shed — Windows — Floors — Interior fixtures — 
Labor-saving appliances — Yards, parks, and ranges. 
Questions 347 



XV111 



Contents 



APPENDIX 

Part I. Laboratory Exercises 

1. Habits of domestic animals — 2. Age of farm animals 

— 3. Measuring horses — 4. Scoring the horse — 5. Weigh- 
ing the horse — 6. Soundness — 7. Harness and harnessing 

— 8. Splicing a rope — 9. Rope halter — 10. Plan of horse 
barn — 11. Mixing feed — 12. Hays — 13. Nutritive ratio — 

14. Forming a ration — Choosing foods for a ration — 

15. Forming a ration for a horse — 16. Measuring grain 
— 17. Measuring hay — 18. Measuring silage — 19. Scoring 
the dairy cow — 20. Measuring dairy cows — 21. Forming 
ration for a dairy cow — 22. Cost of milk — 23. Removing 
horns — 24. Plans for a cow barn — 25. Rough analysis of 
milk — 26. Qualitative determination of milk ash — 27. Test 
for per cent of fat by the Babcock method. — 28. Babcock 
test for skimmed milk — 29. Babcock test for cream — 
30. Babcock test for whole milk using different amounts of 
acid. — 31. Effect of dirt in the keeping qualities of milk — 
32. Study of the keeping qualities of milk — 33. Pasteuriza- 
tion of milk — 34. Study of milk bacteria — 35. Preparation 
of a starter culture for butter making — 36. Study of starter 
made in last exercise — 37. Cottage cheese making — 
38. Weight of dressed carcass by measurement — 39. Cuts 
of meat — 40. Wool — 41. Forming a ration for sheep — 
42. Plan of sheep barn — 43. Age, sex, and vitality of fowls 

— 44. Egg and meat types — 45. Making material for killing 
chicken lice — 46. Killing chicken lice — 47. Poultry houses 

— 48. Coop for hen with chicks — 49. Feed-Hoppers for 
poultry — 50. Structure of the egg — 51. Preserving eggs'. 

Part II. Agricultural Library 

Part III. Addresses of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment 
Stations and of the United States Department of 
Agriculture . . . 

Part IV. Average Weights of Feeding Stuffs . 

Part V. Energy Values of Feeding Stuffs 

Part VI. Digestible Nutrients in Feeding Stuffs 



INDEX 



PAGES 

349-381 



382 

383-384 

385 

386-387 

388-398 



. 399-409 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Jersey cow of excellent type 

Points of the horse 

The Thoroughbred running horse 

The Arabian horse 

The American Saddle horse 

The Stand ardbred horse 

The Hackney Coach horse . 

The French Coach horse 

The German Coach horse . 

The Percheron draft horse . 

The Clydesdale draft horse . 

The Shire draft horse . 

The Belgian draft horse 

The Suffolk draft horse 

Shetland ponies . 

Catalonian Jack . 

Lower front teeth of the horse at three years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at four years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at five years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at six years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at seven years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at eight years of age 

Lower front teeth of the horse at nine years of age 

Upper front teeth of the horse at ten years of age 

Upper front teeth of the horse at eleven years of age 

Upper front teeth of the horse at twenty-one years of 

Side view of horse's teeth at five years of age 

Side view of horse's teeth at twenty-one years of age 

Light horse of good form 

Light horses of stylish action 

Draft horse of good form 

Percheron stallion 

Clydesdale mare . 



age 



Frontispiece 



7 
9 
10 
13 
16 
17 
19 
22 
24 
26 
27 
28 
30 
32 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 
37 
37 
37 
38 
45 
46 
50 
55 
57 



xx List of Illustrations 

PAGE 

Shire mare . 61 

Belgian stallion 64 

Suffolk mare . 68 

A well-fed draft team 74 

Hackney Coach mare and foal three weeks old 77 

Uniform Percheron mares 83 

Catching foal for the first time 91 

Teaching foal to lead 92 

Bitting harness 94 

Acquainting the horse with the training cart 96 

Types of collars 100 

Points of the dairy cow 104 

Points of the beef cow 106 

The Jersey cow " Tormentor's Lass " 109 

The Holstein-Friesian cow " Colantha 4th's Johanna " .... 112 

The Guernsey cow " Dolly Dimple " . 114 

The Ayrshire cow 116 

The Dutch-Belted cow 118 

The Brown Swiss cow 118 

The Shorthorn bull " Avondale " 121 

The Hereford cow 123 

The Aberdeen Angus steer " Shamrock 2d " 125 

Galloway heifers 126 

Devon herd 127 

Red Polled herd 128 

Cow's teeth arranged according to age 130 

Dairy cow of good type 134 

Beef steer of good type ^ . . . . 140 

Diagrams of cuts of beef . 142 

Holstein-Friesian cow 146 

Jersey cow 151 

Apparatus for cooling milk 159 

Apparatus for testing milk for percentage of butter-fat .... 163 

Dairy barn and silos 166 

Interior of dairy barn 169 

Fattening steers on pasture 182 

Points of the sheep - 196 

Merino ram. Class A . 197 

Merino ram. Class B 198 

Merino ram. Class C 198 



List of Illustrations xxi 

PAGE 

The Delaine Merino rain " Beacon " 202 

The Rambouillet 203 

The Southdown 205 

The Shropshire 207 

The Hampshire 208 

The Oxford 210 

The Suffolk .211 

The Dorset-Horned 212 

The Cheviot 213 

The Leicester 215 

The Cotswold . . .216 

The Lincoln 217 

The Black-faced Highland 218 

The angora goat . 219 

The milk goat 220 

Sheep's teeth arranged according to age 223 

Mutton sheep of good type 225 

Judging sheep. Fullness of shoulders 227 

Width of chest 227 

Fullness of back at shoulder tops 227 

Fullness of back at loins 227 

Width of rump 227 

Condition of leg of mutton 227 

The finest of the fleece 229 

The coarsest of the fleece 229 

Diagrams of cuts of lamb and mutton 230 

Flock of Shropshire sheep 235 

Flock of Southdown lambs . . . « ..... 240 

Shearing sheep by machinery 252 

Shearing the back 252 

Sheep and wool when finished 252 

Interior view of sheep barn 254 

Points of the pig 258 

The Poland China 262 

The Berkshire 263 

The Duroc-Jersey 264 

The Chester White . ... 265 

The Hampshire 266 

The Small Yorkshire 268 

The Cheshire „ 269 



xxii List of Illustrations 



PAGE 



The Large Yorkshire 271 

The Tamworth 273 

Lard hog of good type 277 

Diagrams of the cuts of pork 282 

A thick, fat porker 290 

A well-finished bacon hog 291 

A pen of well-bred Chester White swine 297 

The individual hog-house 300 

Points of the fowl 306 

The White Leghorn male 309 

The White Leghorn female 309 

The Light Brahma male 311 

The Light Brahma female 312 

The Barred Plymouth Rock male 315 

The Barred Plymouth Pock female . .315 

The Hamburg 316 

The turkey 317 

The Pekin duck 319 

A flock of geese 320 

Judging poultry 324 

Young chicks feeding in litter of straw . . . . . . . 329 

Feeding the flock. Colony houses . 331 

A breeding flock of White Leghorn . 338 

The long poultry house 342 

Poultry house with scratching shed . . 343 

Interior fixtures of the poultry house . 344 

Outdoor feed hopper t 346 

Parts of harness . 351 

Side splice, first stage 352 

Side splice, second stage , . . 352 

Side splice, third stage 353 

Side splice, fourth stage 353 

Side splice, fifth stage 353 

Side splice completed 353 

Pope halter. Forming the eye 354 

Rope halter. Loose guard, loop type . . . . . . . 355 

Rope halter. Standard guard, loop type . . . . . . . 355 

Rope halter. Spliced halter 356 

Whipping the end of a rope . . 357 

Section of an egg 379 



PART ONE — HORSES 
WITH A GENERAL CHAPTER ON FEEDING OF ANIMALS 




1. Mouth. 

2. Nostril. 

3. Chin. 

4. Nose. 

5. Face. 

6. Forehead. 

7. Eye. 

8. Ear. 

9. Lower jaw. 

10. Throatlatch. 

11. Windpipe. 

12. Crest. 

13. Withers. 



Fig. 1. — Points of the horse. 

14. Shoulder. 

15. Breast. 

16. Arm. 

17. Elbow. 

18. Forearm. 

19. Knee. 

20. Cannon. 

21. Fetlock. 

22. Pastern. 

23. Fort. 

24. Fore flank. 

25. Heart girth. 

26. Coupling. 



27. Back. 

28. Loin. 

29. Rear flank. 

30. Belly. 

31. Hip. 

32. Croup. 

33. Tail. 

34. Buttock. 

35. Quarters. 

36. Thigh. 

37. Stifle. 

38. Lower thigh. 

39. Hock. 



AMMAL HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER I 

THE BREEDS OF HORSES 

There are two distinct types of horses, — - light and heavy. The 
light is useful for driving and light, fast work. This group is 
further divided into running, trotting, pacing, saddling, coaching, 
and similar types. Horses belonging to the light type are usually 
designated light horses, while those belonging to the heavy are 
called draft horses. As the form or conformation best adapted 
for one type is different from that of the other, we cannot find 
both united in the same animal. It is a physical impossibility to 
have maximum speed and maximum draft in the same engine, 
and it is no less the case among horses. 

1. Light type. — ■ In conformation, horses belonging to the light 
type vary considerably, depending on the purpose for which they 
are adapted. For example, the saddle horse differs in many re- 
spects from the running horse, and the trotter or pacer has many 
characteristics unlike either. However, since all horses belonging 
to the light type are intended for light and rather fast work, they 
possess many points in common. 

In general conformation, the light type of horse is rather tall, 
the limbs long, and the distance from the chest to the ground 
is more than one-half the height of the horse from the withers 
to the ground. The distance from the withers to the knee and 
from the hips to the hock is great. The animals are somewhat 
narrow but rather deep in front. In general form the light type 
resembles the greyhound. 

3 



4 Animal Husbandry 

2. Heavy type. — In general conformation, the heavy type of 
horse is massive, blocky, low set, the limbs short, and the distance 
from the chest to the ground one-half the height of the animal 
from the withers to the ground. In general form, this type re- 
sembles the bull dog. Weight is important. In order to pull 
heavy loads the draft horse must possess plenty of weight. A 
draft horse in fair condition at maturity weighs from fifteen hun- 
dred to twenty-four hundred pounds, according to class. 

There are several breeds belonging to each of these types. We 
have various light breeds developed to perform light, fast work; 
coach breeds for stylish action and coach work ; and draft breeds 
to perform light, medium, and heavy draft work. In addition, 
there are several breeds of ponies, produced, in this country at 
least, largely to meet the needs of children and for saddle purposes. 

THE LIGHT BREEDS OF HORSES 

The several breeds of light horses owe their development to 
their environment. Much of the early improvement is due to 
horses from Arabia, a country especially noted for the quality of 
her horses. The rather dry, barren soil makes it necessary for 
the horses to graze over large areas to secure sufficient food. A 
natural selection, therefore, is continually at work, and only the 
horses of quality and endurance survive. It is stated, also, that 
the food, though scant, stimulates the development of dense, 
firm bone. Horses from Arabia have been introduced into many 
countries to improve the light breeds. 

3. The Thoroughbred horse. — This is the running race horse of 
England. In connection with the Arabian horse the Thoroughbred 
has been the fountain head at one time or another of all that 
stands for quality among the light breeds of horses. This breed 
is very popular among English sportsmen. 

4. History of the Thoroughbred horse. — There have been 
running horses in England from the beginning of the thirteenth 



The Breeds of Horses 5 

century. Improvement has been made from time to time by the 
importation of superior animals to be mated with the foundation 
stock of the country, the origin of which is unknown. The Romans 
introduced horses of light build, and running horses were brought 
from Germany. Spanish horses were also used in the improve- 
ment. Then followed Arabian horses. Charles II, of England, 

The Name, Native Home, Approximate Height, Weight, Uses, and 
Common Color of Each of the Breeds of Light Horses 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Height, Hands 
Weight, Pounds 


Uses 


Color 


Thoroughbred 


England 


14 -14* 
800 -1000 


Racing 
Hunting 


Bay, brown 


Arabian . . . 


Arabia 


14 -14* 
800 -1000 


Riding 


Bay, white 


American Saddler 


United States 


15-U-15-2i 


Driving 


Bay, brown, 






950 -1050 


Riding 


black 


Standardbred 


United States 


15i -15} 


Driving 


Bay, brown, 




Wt 


900 -1150 


Racing 


black 


Orloff Trotter 


Russia 


15f -16| 


Driving 


Gray, bay, 






1100 -1300 


Racing 


black 


Morgan 1 . . . 


United States 


14} -15} 


Driving 


Bay, chest- 






900 -1150 


Racing 


nut 



Sometimes considered merely a family of the Standardbred. 



introduced the Royal Mares from Arabia and other Oriental 
countries. The end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eight- 
eenth century witnessed the arrival of the most famous of these 
Oriental horses. In 1689, Byerly Turk was introduced by Captain 
Byerly; in 1706, Darley Arabian was imported from Aleppo, 
Syria, by a Mr. Darley; and in 1728, Godolphin Barb was im- 
ported by Lord Godolphin. From these notable horses sprang 
the three most famous Thoroughbred sires as follows : Herod, 
descending from Byerly Turk; Eclipse, descending from Darley 



6 Animal Husbandry 

Arabian ; and Matchem, descending from Godolphin Barb. The 
Thoroughbred has been bred without stain of alien blood for 
considerably more than a century, and subjected to the most 
rigorous system of selection for strength and staying power by the 
test of performance on the turf. 

5. Description of the Thoroughbred horse. — The head is fine 
and lean and of moderate size ; the eyes prominent and intelligent ; 
and the ears of medium size and carried in a lively manner. The 
neck is long and fine; the shoulders slope obliquely back; the 
chest tends to be narrow yet deep ; the body is cylindrical with 
the depth at withers rather less than half the height, and with 
the underline from elbow to stifle longer than the top line from 
withers to hips. The croup is long and level, with the tail at- 
tached medium high and carried gracefully. The hindquarters 
are a distinctive feature of the breed, being long, strongly muscled, 
and exhibiting great driving power. The legs above the knees 
and hocks are long and distinctly muscled. The knee and hock 
joints are of medium size, clearly defined, and strongly supported. 
The cannons are short, deep, and clean cut, with tendons well 
detached. The pasterns are rather sloping, being carried at an 
angle of about 45 degrees. The feet are of medium size, wide, and 
high at the heel. The action is a very important feature and should 
be straight, free, and easy (Fig. 2). 

6. Famous Thoroughbred races. — With this breed races are 
run under the saddle. The rider or " jockey " must be of light 
weight and skilful. Running events are looked upon with favor 
in England, where there are many famous race courses. The so- 
called " classics " of the English turf are the St. Leger, established 
in 1776 ; the Epsom Oaks, first run in 1779 ; the Epsom Derby, 
established in 1780; the Two Thousand Guineas, first run in 
1809 ; and the One Thousand Guineas, established in 1814. 
Over each of these tracks many famous contests have been held 
and at the present time they are considered the center of English 
social and sporting functions. 



The Breeds of Horses 




8 



Animal Husbandry 



In England all of the major racing events are for comparatively 
long distances, and as a rule over a straight course. As a result 
of these long races the English Thoroughbred shows great en- 
durance at high speed. 

7. English track records. — The following table shows the 
length of the course and the comparative track record for each of 
the major English Classics: — 

Comparative Track Records in England 



Name of Track 


Length of Track 


Year 


Record 


St. Leger . . 
Epsom Oaks 
Epsom Derby 


1 mile, 6 furlongs and 132 yards 
1* miles and 29 yards 
1| miles and 29 yards 


1910 
1905 
1910 


3.04 

2.38 
2.35| 



8. American track records. — In America, running races are con- 
ducted over the ordinary race course, and as a rule for much shorter 
distances than in England. All things considered, racing is not held 
in so high favor here as in England. There are, however, a number 
of annual events held in the United States, perhaps a greater num- 
ber than in England, though they are not so well patronized. 

The following table shows the comparative track records for a 
few of the more noted tracks at various distances : — 

Comparative Track Records in America 



Name of Track 



Saratoga, N.Y. . . 
Sheepshead Bay, N.Y. 
Gravesend, N.Y. 
Morris Park, N.Y. . 
Belmont Park, N.Y. 
Harlem Park, 111. . 
Santa Anita, Cal. 



Distance 



Mile 



Year Record 



1874 
1895 
1890 
1889 

1900 
1909 



0.47f 
0.48 
0.48| 
0.46 

0.471 
0.46* 



1 Mile 



Year 



1910 
1906 
1907 
1904 
1905 
1903 
1908 



Record 



1.37| 
1.37| 

1.38! 
1.38| 
1.37f 
1.37| 
1.37* 



1£ Mile 



Year 



1902 
1908 
1907 
1901 
1908 
1897 
1908 



Record 



2.31| 

2.30f 

2.31 

2.34* 

2.32* 

2.32f 

2.31* 



The Breeds of Horses 9 

9. The Arabian horse. — Because of the clannish nature of the 
Arabian tribes, little is known of the early history of their horses. 
Certain it is, however, that they developed a strain of horses 
second to none in beauty and stylish action as well as in stamina 
and endurance. The best Arabian horses are found in the desert 



i ^» B?J1 






to*.-- _ 


%^* ; *" 
^ 


jWHBp ffm 9V * mm 


^ 


M \. V 



Fig. 3. — The Arabian horse. 



region among the migratory Bedouin tribes, of which the two most 
powerful groups are the Shammar race in the north and Anezah 
in the south. The latter race have the best horses. There are a 
number of noted families of Arabian horses of which the most 
famous are the Keheilet Ajuz and descendants; the Maneghi 
with three sub-families ; the Hadban, with five sub-families ; the 
Jelfon, with its sub-families ; and Homdani, with two sub-families. 



10 



Animal Husbandry 






10. The Arabian compared with the Thoroughbred. — In 

general conformation, the Arabian is more symmetrical and more 
stylish than the Thoroughbred, which is somewhat angular, with 
joints more or less prominent. The body of the Arabian horse is 
shorter, with the ribs more curved and longer, particularly the 
rear ones, thus giving a straighter underline. The legs are not 




Fig. 4. — The American Saddle horse. 

so long as in the Thoroughbred horse. While the Arabian horse 
is more stylish in the carriage of the head, neck, and tail, and while 
he possesses great stamina and endurance, he is not nearly the 
equal of the Thoroughbred for speed (Fig. 3). 

11. The American Saddle horse. — This breed is the outgrowth 
of necessity. In early days, before the establishment of improved 
roads, traffic was by trails through the forests and the only means 
of travel was on horse-back. Thus the use of the saddle horse 
became very common, particularly in the southern states. Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri contributed largely 



The Breeds of Horses 11 

to the development of the American Saddle horse. In fact, so 
much of the breeding has been accomplished in Kentucky that 
this breed is often spoken of as the Kentucky Saddle Horse. 
Thoroughbred blood was used extensively in the improvement of 
the breed. By far the most important animal in the foundation 
of the breed was Denmark, from whom practically all of the noted 
saddlers of to-day are descended. 

12. The American Saddler compared with the Thoroughbred. — 
The Saddler shows more style in the carriage of the head and arch 
of the neck and tail as well as in the general symmetry of form. 
The height and weight exceed that of the Thoroughbred. The 
shoulders and pasterns are sloping and long, the pasterns in par- 
ticular being long, strong, and springy, thus favoring an easy gait. 

The gaits of the Saddler are especially distinctive. Saddlers 
are divided into two classes according to the gaits they can per- 
form : the walk-trot-canter horse, the most usual of saddle horses ; 
and the gaited saddle horse, capable of performing the walk, trot, 
canter, rack, and one or more of the three slow gaits, the running 
walk, or fox trot, or slow pace (Fig. 4). 

13. The Standardbred horse. — This breed includes both trotters 
and pacers, often erroneously considered as two breeds. They have 
a common history and are distinguished only by their gait. This is 
sometimes interchangeable, and the same horse may pace on one 
occasion and trot on another. This breed represents the road type. 

14. History of the Standardbred horse. — This breed is of 
American origin, although traceable to animals imported from 
England, where for many years horses have been both trotted and 
run under the saddle. While the breed is of recent origin, yet 
Norfolk and Yorkshire, England, have been noted for their trotting 
horses for more than a century. The English Thoroughbred, 
however, furnished the major part of the improved blood entering 
into the foundation of the American Standardbred horse. The 
early ancestry can be traced in an unbroken line to Darley Arabian, 
Byerly Turk, and Godolphin Barb. Perhaps the most important 



12 



Animal Husbandry 






foundation animal was Messenger, a Thoroughbred imported from 
England in 1788, and the second most noted Bellfounder, also 
imported from England, in the year 1822. 

15. Hambletonian io. — This horse was a great-grandson of 
Messenger. It is safe to say that no horse of any breed or period 
in this or any other country has excited an interest so universal 
or has represented such a vast sum of money in his offspring and 
descendants as that of Hambletonian 10, sometimes referred to as 
Rysdyks Hambletonian. He was born May 15, 1849, and died 
March 27, 1876. It is said that during his career he sired 1333 
colts, earning a service fee of $207,790 for his owner. 



Hambletonian 10 



Pedigree of Hambletonian 10 
Messenger 

Mare by Sour Crout 

Son of Messenger 



Abdallah 



Mambrino 



Amazonia 



Unknown 



Bellfounder 



Charles Kent 
mare 



Jery's Bellfounder 



One Eye 



I Unknown 
Son of Messenger 
Daughter of Messenger 



There are several notable families of Standardbred horses, of 
which the Hambletonian descending from Hambletonian 10 is 
perhaps the most famous. Other families are the Mambrinos, 
descending from Mambrino Chief; the Morgans, from Justin 
Morgan ; the Clays, from Henry Clay ; and the Hal family, de- 
scending from Tom Hal. 

16. The Standardbred compared with the Thoroughbred. — In 
conformation the trotter and pacer tends to be angular, the muscles 
and joints showing prominence, with the ribs more or less noticeable, 



The Breeds of Horses 



13 



similar to the Thoroughbred. The trotter is the larger and the 
ribs are somewhat longer, particularly the rear ones, giving a 
straighter underline than in the Thoroughbred. Powerful trotting 
or pacing action is essential. It must be true, varying neither to 
the right nor left. Long reaching knee and hock action with the 




Fig. 5. — The Standardbred. Trotting and pacing horse. 



feet picked up smartly is most essential. This is America's principal 
race-horse and speed at the trot is the major requirement (Fig. 5). 
17. Trotting and pacing records. — There are many standard 
trotting and pacing events, and while the horses at the top of such 
events are constantly changing, yet the fastest records seem worthy 
of special mention. 



14 



Animal Husbandry 



The following table contains the world's records for the more 
important events : — 

Teotting Records 



Event 


Name of Horse 


Place 


Date 


Record 


Half mile 
One mile . . 
Two miles . . . 
Five miles . . . 


Major Delmar 

Uhlan 

The Harvester 

Zambora 


Memphis, Tenn. 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Lexington, Ky. 


1904 
1912 
1910 
1902 


0.59| 
1.58 
4.15| 
12.24 


Pacing Records 


Event 


Name of Horse 


Place 


Date 


Record 


Half mile . . . 
One mile 

Two miles . . . 
Five miles . . . 


Dan Patch 
Dan Patch 
Dan Patch 
Lady St. Clair 


Memphis, Tenn. 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Macon, Ga. 
San Francisco 


1903 
1905 
1903 
1874 


0.56 

1.55| 

4.17 

12.54f 



THE COACH BREEDS OF HORSES 

The several breeds of coach horses are useful for stylish action 
and heavy carriage or coach work. They owe their origin and 
improvement, in part at least, to the light breeds, particularly 
the Thoroughbred and Arabian. These two breeds did much to 
decrease the size and improve the action as well as to increase the 
endurance of the coach breeds. 

18. The Hackney coach horse. — This breed of horses was 
developed in Norfolk and Yorkshire, England, and was formerly 
spoken of as the Norfolk Trotter. The active development of 
the Hackney began in the eighteenth century by the importation 
of Arabian, Barb, and Turkish horses, which were crossed on the 
mares of Norfolk. Thoroughbreds were also used in the early 



The Breeds of Horses 



15 



The Name, Native Home, Approximate Height, Weight, Uses, 
Common Color of Each of the Breeds of Coach Horses 



Name of Breed 


Native 
Home 


Height, Hands 
Weight, Pounds 


Uses 


Color 






15|-15| 






Hackney . . 


England 


1000 -1200 
15 -16 


Park driving 


Chestnut 


French Coach . 


Prance 


1200 -1350 
16 -16| 


Coach driving 


Bay, brown 
chestnut 


German Coach 


Germany 


1350 -1450 
16 -16| 


Heavy coach 
driving ; 
general 
utility 


Black, brown 
Chestnut 


Cleveland Bay 


England 


1200 -1550 


General util- 
ity 


Bay 



improvement. Perhaps the most noted of the early animals was a 
horse known under a variety of names, as Schales, Shales, Shields, 
and the Original Shales. This horse is said to be a grandson of 
the Thoroughbred Eclipse. The Fireaways, the Bellfounders, and 
the Phenomenons are direct descendants of the Original Shales 
as well as the ancestors of our present-day Hackneys. 

19. Description of the Hackney. — There is much variation in 
type, although this breed is regarded as blockier of form than any 
of the other Coach breeds. The Hackney is described as a power- 
fully built, short-legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent 
head, neat neck, strong, level back, powerful loins, and as perfect 
a shoulder as can be produced (Fig. 6). 

Formerly the Hackney was valued for its long and strong action 
at the trot, but at the present time its chief merit resides in the 
high and often flashy action of the knees and hocks. It is said 
that the noted Hackney stallion, Confidence, transmitted this 
quality to his offspring. It is stylish, attractive action, not speed, 



16 



Animal Husbandry 




te* <•< 



Fig. 6. — The Hackney Coach horse. 

that is important at the present time, and this breed is in demand 
for fashionable equipment. 

20. The French coach horse. — The name French Coach is of 
American origin, there being no breed of that name in France. 
The term Demi-Sang, meaning half-blood, is the name in use to 
designate the Coach horse in France. This name was formerly 
applied to the offspring of English Thoroughbred and Norman 
draft horses. For more than two centuries the French govern- 
ment has given material aid to horse breeding, and the French 
Coach horse owes its present perfection to such support. 



The Breeds of Horses 



17 



21. Classes of horses in France. — There are three classes of 
breeding horses in France. First, those owned by the govern- 
ment. In 1910 there were of these 3445, of which 2214 were 
coach, 664 draft, and 567 Thoroughbred. Second, those subsidized 




Fig. 7. — The French Coach horse. 



by the government. The owners of such approved animals are 
allowed from 300 to 5000 francs ($60 to $1000) bonus annually from 
the Minister of Agriculture. In 1910 there were 1709 approved 
and subsidized horses in France. Third, those that have been 
authorized by government officials. In 1910 there were 191 
animals of this class. All other horses are prevented from stand- 
ing for public service by a law passed in 1885. 



18 Animal Husbandry 

22. French coach compared with the Hackney. — In general 
conformation the French Coach is not so smooth or symmetrical 
as the Hackney. The French Coach is larger than the Hackney, 
possessing very good length of body, with a long, somewhat arch- 
ing neck and a long, wide, level croup. The French horse possesses 
the larger bone and the more powerful muscling. The action, 
particularly at the trot, is longer and more powerful, rather than 
high and flashy as in the Hackney (Fig. 7). 

23. The German coach horse. — • This breed was developed in 
northwestern Germany, particularly in the fertile lowlands 
drained by the Elbe, Weser, and Ems rivers. The states that 
contributed to the development of this breed are Hanover, Olden- 
burg, Schleswig-Holstein, and East Friesland. The German Coach 
horse owes its origin to horses introduced from the Orient. As 
early as 1552 Count Johanna imported horses from Turkey to 
Oldenburg and took an active interest in improving the horse 
stock. Many of the German States took an active interest in 
developing horses somewhat similar to France. Thus we have 
several types of German horse varying in size and conformation, 
most of them taking their names from the state in which they 
were developed. The more important of these types are : the 
East Prussian or Trakehnen horse, the Hanoverian horse, the 
Holstein horse, the Oldenburg horse, and the East Friesland 
horse. 

24. German coach compared with Hackney. — The German 
horses are exceedingly variable in size and weight, and all types 
lack the smooth outline and symmetrical form of the Hackney. 
The East Prussian or Trakehnen type is the lightest and, with the 
Holstein and Hanoverian types, is useful for light carriage and 
saddle purposes. The Oldenburg and East Friesland types are 
the largest and are used for heavy coach work and as farm or 
general-purpose horses, but are seldom used under the saddle. 
The action at the walk and trot is longer and not so high and 
stylish as in the Hackney (Fig. 8). 



The Breeds of Horses 



19 




20 Animal Husbandry 

25. The Cleveland Bay coach horse. — This breed was formerly 
known as the Old Coaching or Chapman horse. It is stated that 
the origin of the breed traces to a cross between the Yorkshire 
cart mares and an Oriental horse of note, belonging to one of the 
three great families descended from Dark Horse, Barley Harvest, 
and Farmer's Glory. The Cleveland Bay is the oldest type of 
large-sized carriage horse and has existed probably without much 
variation in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire for more 
than two centuries. The breed sustained a serious blow when the 
development of railways reduced the demand for stage-coach 
horses, and when it became a common practice to breed carriage 
horses by mating Thoroughbreds with small mares, but it was 
saved from extinction by being employed for farm work. 

26. Cleveland Bay compared with the Hackney. — The former 
is more upstanding and larger than the latter, possessing good 
sloping shoulders, a back of good length, powerful loins, and long 
quarters. The Cleveland Bay lacks the attractiveness in the 
carriage of the head, neck, and tail, and the action is not so stylish 
or flashy as in the Hackney, although the movement is strong and 
powerful. 

THE DRAFT BREEDS OF HORSES 

The horse is very susceptible to climatic conditions. A tem- 
perate climate and fertile grassy plains produce horses distinguished 
for size and strength, while highlands and mountain ranges, with 
bleak, cold climate and scanty subsistence, dwarf the frame, 
and produce a hardy, diminutive animal. There is no exception 
to this in nature although man may do much by supplying warm 
quarters and abundant food, and by selection to counteract the 
influence of climate. Thus the fertile plains of Germany and 
France, with their agreeable climate and abundant forage, have 
produced the ponderous draft horse which still distinguishes the 
region, and has been the source from which all of the countries 
have drawn the foundation for their draft breeds. These very 



The Breeds of Horses 



21 



large horses lack quality and activity which are essential to effi- 
ciency in draft horses. To improve the quality and action light 
horses have been used in the founding of each of the draft breeds. 

The Name, Native Home, Approximate Height, Weight, Uses, and 
Common Color of Each of the Breeds of Draft Horses 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Height, Hands 
Weight, Pounds 


Uses 


Color 






15|-17 






Percheron . . 


France 


1800 -2300 
151-17 


Heavy hauling 


Black, gray 


French Draft . 


France 


1800 -2300 
16 -16| 


Heavy hauling 


Black, gray 


Clydesdale 


Scotland 


1800 -2300 
16 -17 


Heavy hauling 


Light bay 


Shire . . . 


England 


1800 -2300 
16 -17 


Heavy hauling 


Light bay 


Belgian . . 


Belgium 


1600 -2300 
16 -17 


Heavy hauling 


Bay, black, 
brown 


Suffolk . . 


England 


1600 -2000 


Heavy hauling 


Chestnut, bay 



27. The Percheron draft horse. — This breed was developed 
in France, particularly in the region of La Perche, although all 
Normandy in northwestern France is famous for Percherons. 
The real origin is obscure, although Oriental horses played an im- 
portant part in the formation of this breed. Large numbers of 
Arab, Barb, and Turkish horses were introduced into France at 
the time of the Saracen invasion in the early part of the eighth 
century. As the Saracens were defeated and their army captured, 
practically all of these horses remained in France and no doubt 
did much to improve the quality and action of the native stock. 
For more than two centuries the French government has given 
material aid to the improvement of draft horses similar to the 
French Coach horse. 

About 1820 two Oriental stallions, Godolphin and Gallipoli, 



22 



Animal Husbandry 



were purchased for the government horse-breeding farm at Le Pin 
and were used on French mares. These horses were gray and no 
doubt had considerable influence in developing the gray color 
among the horses of La Perche. The general effect of this Eastern 




Fig. 9. — The Percheron draft horse. 



blood on the French horse has been to improve the quality, action, 
and style. Because of the general excellence, the Percheron is 
the most important breed of draft horses in America. 

28. Description of the Percheron. — The more approved type 
demands all the best features of a model draft horse. The general 
form is massive and low-set. Weight is a most important con- 



The Breeds of Horses 23 

sideration of a true draft horse, and in this respect the Percheron 
is second to none. The head is rather large and not so clean-cut 
as in the light breeds. The nose or face is straight, with nostrils 
of ample size. The neck is short, strong, and powerfully muscled. 
The shoulders are more upright than in the lighter breeds. The 
chest is broad and deep, indicating a large capacity in the vital 
organs. The body is comparatively short on top, long below, 
broad along the back, with the ribs strongly arched and of great 
depth. The loins are short, broad, and thickly muscled. The 
croup is broad and wide, but with a tendency to steepness which 
is very objectionable and affects both the beauty and the power of 
the horse. The legs above the knees and hocks are heavy and 
powerfully muscled, while the joints are fairly large and not so 
clearly defined as among lighter horses. The cannons are short 
and strong. The pasterns are more upright and not so clearly 
denned as in the light breeds. The feet are large. The action is 
true and strong and is perhaps second to none, although the ad- 
herents of the Clydesdale breed claim superiority for their breed 
(Fig. 9). 

29. The French draft horse. — The history and description 
of this breed is practically the same as that of the Percheron. 
In fact, all Percherons are French Draft horses. In America, it 
has been the custom to refer to draft horses introduced from France 
as French Draft horses, which formerly caused much confusion, 
as there are several clearly recognized breeds of draft horses in 
France, such as the Percherons, already considered, the Boulon- 
nais, the Bretons, the Ardennais, the Nivernais, and the Picardys. 
Each of these breeds, as it developed, became similar to the Per- 
cherons. It is extremely doubtful whether any draft horses come 
to this country from France that cannot be properly listed as 
belonging to one of these breeds (Fig. 9). 

30. The Clydesdale draft horse. — The Upper Ward of Lanark, 
in the valley of the Clyde River, has long been renowned for power- 
ful farm horses, the superior size and strength being due, in part 



24 



Animal Husbandry 



at least, to the capacity of the soil to support large-framed animals. 
After the union of the Scotch and English crowns in the early part 
of the seventeenth century, strong trade relationships sprang up 
between the two countries. The Scotch cattle dealers driving 




Fig. 10. — The Clydesdale draft horse. 



herds into England returned with English horses which were mated 
with the native stock, thereby improving the quality and in- 
creasing the size. English blood continued to be introduced into 
Scotland until comparatively recent times. Perhaps the most 
famous of the English importations was a horse named Lintock. 
During recent years, however, the Clydesdale has been main- 
tained as a pure breed. Among the most noted horses of the breed 
are Baron's Pride and his son Baron of Buchlyvie, the latter 
selling for $47,500, the highest price paid for a draft horse. 



The Breeds of Horses 25 

31. Clydesdale compared with the Percheron. — While the 
two breeds are of approximately the same size, the former possesses 
certain distinctive features, on which loyal Scotchmen lay great 
emphasis. The most important of these features are the color 
markings, the hairy legs, and the action. The coloring is usually 
bay or brown and the characteristic markings are a white blaze 
on the face and one or more white feet. From the back of the legs 
below the knees and hocks grows an abundance of. long hair called 
the feather. The Clydesdale breeders have always given special 
attention to the action, with the result that it is not surpassed 
by any other draft breed. In general, the Scotch horse is more 
upstanding than the French horse, the legs are longer, and the 
body longer and lighter, particularly in the region of the flanks. 
The face or nose is often slightly Roman (Fig. 10). 

32. The Shire draft horse. — During its past history, this 
breed has been known in England as the Great Horse, War Horse, 
Cart Horse, Old English Black Horse, Giant Lincolnshire, Strong 
Horse, and Shire. The breed was developed in the lowlands of 
England, particularly in Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. In 
early times, heavy, active horses were in great demand for war 
purposes, and this led to large importations of the heavy Black 
Horse of Normandy and the Flanders. One of the early improvers 
of the breed was Robert Bakewell, who introduced horses from 
Holland. The history of the Shire shows a slow but persistent 
development of an improved type through a long period of time. 

33. Shire compared with the Percheron. — In general appear- 
ance, the Shire resembles the Clydesdale, particularly in the color 
markings and the feather of the legs. In conformation, however, 
the Shire more closely resembles the Percheron, the form being 
massive and low-set, the back broad, the ribs well sprung and of 
good length, particularly the rear ones, thus giving a deep body. 
The Shire is perhaps more powerfully built than the Percheron, 
but lacks the action of both the Scotch and the French horses. 
This is due, in part at least, to the rather straight shoulders, the 



26 



Animal Husbandry 



short and powerfully muscled legs, and to the rather short and 
straight pasterns (Fig. 11). 




Fig. 11.— The Shire draft horse. 

34. The Belgian draft horse. — For many centuries Belgium 
has been noted for the size and quality of her horses. The very 
early literature states that the people of Belgium were very good 
judges of horses and that they were willing to pay high prices for a 
superior class of horses. Unlike most other draft breeds that have 
been developed, this breed has been almost entirely the product 
of its environment. In the development of the breed, no partic- 
ular animals appear to have been prominent nor has any breeder 
of outstanding merit appeared. The breed owes its improvement 
to the efforts of many small breeders working with a few animals 
each, rather than a few breeders working with many horses each, 
as is usually the case. Modern improvement, however, is of 
comparatively recent date and is due to the efforts of the govern- 



The Breeds of Horses 



27 



ment, which awards a maintenance bounty to horses of approved 
standing. 

35. Belgian compared with the Percheron. — In general con- 
formation the Belgian is of the most compact form, having a maxi- 




Fig. 12. — The Belgian draft horse. 



mum of weight for its size. The Belgian is even more compact 
than the Percheron. The body is very full in the breast and 
unusually broad and deep of back, no breed, in proportion to its 
size, showing so much body girth. The rump is often rather short 
and steep, with the tail set low, which is objectionable. The face 
or nose is straight. The lower legs are free from the long hair 
characteristic of the Clydesdale and Shire (Fig. 12). 

36. The Suffolk draft horse. — » Previous to the latter half of 



28 



Animal Husbandry 



the eighteenth century the history of this breed is obscure. Mr. 
Crisp of Ufford, Sussex, was one of the early improvers of the breed. 
The Crisp Horse, born in 1768, is recognized as the progenitor. 
Most of the present-day Suffolks descend from this horse. The 
history from the time of the Crisp Horse has been clearly and 




Fig. 13. —The Suffolk draft horse. 

fully traced, and stands accepted by breeders generally. Formerly 
there were several tribes of Suffolks, the more important being 
the Blake tribe, the Wright tribe, the Shadingfield tribe, and the 
Martin Boxer tribe. This breed is the least known of the draft 
breeds in America. 

37. Suffolk compared with the Percheron. — The former is 
somewhat smaller than the latter, although the body of the English 



The Breeds of Horses 



29 



horse is characterized by greater depth and more circumference, 
considering the size, than is the case with the French horse. The 
ribs of the Suffolk have an unusual spring and depth, thus giving 
the body a very round, full form. The rump is full and well 
carried out, the tendency to steepness being slight. The char- 
acteristic color of the Suffolk is chestnut (Fig. 13). 



THE PONY BREEDS OF HORSES 

As has been suggested, the various breeds of ponies owe their 
small size, in a large measure, to adverse climatic conditions and 
scanty subsistence, although the size of the modern breeds is 
controlled by man. The pony breeds vary greatly in both size 
and conformation, according to the environment and the purpose 
for which they are selected. 

The Name, Native H'ome, Approximate Height, Weight, Uses and 
Common Color of the Breeds of Ponies 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Height, Inches 
Weight, Pounds 


Uses 


Color 




Shetland 


34 -44 






Shetland . . 


Islands 


250-400 

48-56 


Riding, driving 


Black, brown, 
piebald 


Welsh . . . 


Wales 


400-600 
48-56 


Driving, riding 


Brown, gray 


Exmoor 


Devon- 
shire 


500-800 
Under 56 


Driving, riding 


Bay, gray 


Arabian 


Arabia 


600-800 


Driving, riding 


Bay, white 


Hackney . . 


England 


Under 56 
600-800 


Driving, riding 


Chestnut 


Mexican l 


Mexico 
Western 


Under 56 
600-850 


Riding 


Duns, mixed 


Indian x . . 


United 


Under 56 


Riding 


Duns, bays 




States 


600-850 




mixed 



Not recognized as a breed. 



30 Animal Husbandry 

38. The Shetland pony. — This, the smallest of all ponies, is 
in many respects the most important. In England and other 
countries, this breed has been used extensively in the coal mines, 
while in America it is practically restricted to the use of children, 
for which it has no equal. The native home of this breed, the 
Shetland Islands, is situated to the north of Scotland, from which 
it is separated by about two hundred miles of very rough and 
dangerous sea. The climate is cold and the forage scant. 




Fig. 14. — Shetland ponies. 

In general form the Shetland pony resembles a diminutive 
draft horse. The best specimens are compact in build, having 
small head and ears, short muscular neck, full chest, deep body, 
broad back, heavy muscular quarters, and short legs. The temper 
is very mild and the disposition cannot be improved upon (Fig. 14). 

39. Welsh pony compared with the Shetland. — The former is 
the larger and more upstanding. The general conformation of 
the Welsh pony resembles that of the light type, in fact, Thorough- 
bred and Arabian horses have been used in the improvement of 
the breed. The Welsh pony, because of its more active tempera- 
ment, is not so desirable for children's uses as the Shetland. 

40. Arabian and Hackney ponies. — The history and descrip- 
tion of these ponies are similar to those of the Arab and Hackney 



The Breeds of Horses 



31 



horse already considered, with the single exception of the height, 
which is 56 inches or under. 

41. Mexican and Indian ponies. — These are descendants of 
horses brought to America by the early Spanish settlers. They 
have remarkable endurance and are capable of the severest work 
under the saddle. They have a very remarkable spirit which is 
frequently far from amiable, although this varies with the climatic 
conditions and the treatment. In the south these ponies are called 
Mustangs, in the central and western states they are called Bron- 
chos, and in the north they are often spoken of as Cay use. They 
increase in wildness from south to north, the Mustangs being the 
tamest and the Cayuse the wildest. 

THE BREEDS OF DONKEYS 

The several breeds of donkeys or jacks vary in form and size, 
although the differences are not so marked as in horses. These 
variations are brought about by the same conditions as bring about 
variations in horses. 

The Name, Native Home, Approximate Height, Uses and Common 
Color of the Breeds of Jacks 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Height, 
Hands 


Uses 


Color 


Andalusian . . 


Andalusia, 


141-151 


Siring mules 


Gray 




Spain 








Maltese 


Malta, 


14 -141 


Siring mules 


Brown, black 




Islands 








Catalonian 


Catalonia, 
Spain 


14i-15| 


Siring mules 


Black brown 


Majorca . . . 


Majorca 
Islands 


15 -16 


Siring mules 


Black 


Italian .... 


Italy 


13 -14 


Siring mules 


Blue, black 


Poitou .... 


France 


14|-15 


Siring mules 


Black 



32 Animal Husbandry 

42. The mule and hinny. — The mule is an important draft 
animal in America. It is not a true breed, as ordinarily considered, 
but is a hybrid, having for its sire a donkey, commonly termed 
a jack, and a mare for a dam. The reciprocal cross is known as a 
hinny. The female donkey is called a jennet. The mule par- 
takes of many of the characters of the jack. For example, the 




Fig. 15. — Catalonian Jack. 

long ears, slender body, tufted mane, sparely haired tail, slender 
foot, and the braying voice. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the relative importance of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and 
poultry in your county? 

2. How many pure-bred horses are there in your county? Give the 
name of each and the breed to which it belongs. Give the pedigree for 
at least four generations. 



The Breeds of Horses 33 

3. Compare the price of pure-bred draft, coach, and driving horses. 
Which is the highest priced and why? 

4. Which breed of horses is the most popular in your county ? Who 
are the principal breeders ? 

5. What is the nature of the soil in your region? Which are the 
most important farm crops, fruits, and vegetables grown ? What type 
of horse is best suited to the cultivation of each and why? 

6. Why have the French breeders been so successful in breeding 
draft horses ? Why is it that England leads in the breeding of Thorough- 
breds, while America holds first place in raising trotters and pacers ? 

7. Are there enough horses produced in your county to fill the demand ? 
If not, how many are shipped into the county ? What do they cost ? 

8. Are there any mules bred in your county? Which is the more 
profitable, breeding horses or mules? Why is it that large contracting 
firms prefer mules ? 

9. Give the name of a few horse owners who exhibit horses at your 
state, county, or town fair. Give the names of a few prize- winning horses. 

10. What is the track record of your state, county, or town fair race- 
track. Give the name of the horse that made the record. 



CHAPTER II 

JUDGING HORSES 

Before attempting to judge a horse, we should learn the method 
of determining age and of locating unsoundness. These are impor- 
tant factors in determining the animal's present and prospective 
value. Familiarity with the signs that indicate age and unsound- 
ness is, therefore, often extremely useful. While a knowledge of 
such signs is not difficult to secure, skill in their application de- 
pends much on practice. 

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE AGE OF A HORSE 

The order of the appearance of the teeth and their method of 
wearing are considered the most important and accurate means of 
estimating the age of domestic animals, and are the means em- 
ployed by all horsemen. These are, ■ however, not absolutely 
accurate, and much depends on the condition as well as on the 
individuality of the animal. The teeth of animals that have bones 
of somewhat open structure are likely to indicate that the animals 
are older than they really are ; while the teeth of those whose bones 
are of fine close texture may indicate them to be younger than they 
are. 

43. Colt. — Before the end of the first year the colt is provided 
with a set of temporary or milk teeth, the first or middle pair 
appearing at about two weeks of age ; the second or intermediate 
pair at two to four weeks of age ; and the third or lateral pair 
appearing at about five months of age. The difference in size 
of the jaw bone between the foal and the grown horse makes a 

34 



Judging Horses 35 

change from milk to permanent teeth necessary. The permanent 
replace the temporary teeth at two and one-half or three years of 
age up to five years. 

44. Three years old. — At about two years and nine months of 
age the permanent pair of center nippers replaces the temporary 
ones, and by the time the animal is three years of age they are up 
and ready for use. They will have deep cups and are much larger 
than the temporary teeth. If the colt be a male, small tusks will 
appear at about this time (Fig. 16). 

45. Four years old. — At about three years and nine months, 
the intermediate pair of permanent nippers appears and is up and 
ready for use at four years of age. The center pair shows much 
wear and the cups are about one-third gone. The tusks, if any, 
have enlarged, but are still sharp on their points and flattish on 
the inside (Fig. 17). 

46. Five years old. — At about four years and nine months, the 
permanent corner nippers make their appearance and are up and 
ready for use at five years of age. At five years of age the horse 
has a full mouth of permanent teeth ; the center nippers show 
two years' wear and have changed slightly in shape, having be- 
come rounder on the inside, the cups being two-thirds gone; 
the intermediate nippers show one year's wear, the cup being one- 
third gone. Five years is the age preferred on the market, and 
occasionally horsemen extract the temporary nippers, and so 
hasten the appearance of the permanent teeth (Fig. 18). 

47. Six years old. — The cups in the center pair in the lower 
jaw have disappeared, or nearly so; they have become much 
smaller in the intermediates and show one year's wear in the 
corner nippers (Fig. 19). 

48. Seven years old. — At seven, the cups are gone from the 
mtermediate pair in the lower jaw, and have become quite shallow 
in the corner nippers. There is a notch in the upper corner nipper 
where it overlaps the lower one. Marked changes in shape have 
taken place in the nippers ; they are becoming thicker from inside 



36 



Animal Husbandry 





Fig. 16. — Lower front teeth 
at three years of age. Two 
center permanent teeth 
up. . 



Fig. 20. — Lower front teeth 
at seven years of age. 
Cups out of intermediate 
pair. 





Fig 17. — Lower front teeth 
at four years of age. Four 
center permanent teeth 
up. 



Fig. 21. — Lower front teeth 
at eight years of age. 
Cups all out. 





Fig. 18. — Lower front teeth 
at five years of age. All 
permanent teeth up. 



Fig. 22.— Upper front teeth 
at nine years of age. Cups 
out of center pair. 





Fig. 19. — Lower front teeth 
at six years of age. Cups 
out in center pair. 



Fig. 23. — Upper fiont teeth 
at ten years of age. Cups 
out of intermediate pair. 



Judging Horses 



37 




Fig. 24. — Upper front teeth at 
eleven years of age. Cups all out. 




out, rounder on the inside, and meet at a sharper angle than 
when they first made their appearance (Fig. 20). 

49. Eight years old. — At eight 
years, the cups are gone from all the 
nippers of the lower jaw. They are 
present in all of the upper jaw 
(Fig. 21). 

50. Nine years old. — The cups 
in the center pair of nippers of the 
upper jaw have disappeared, but 
are still present in the intermediate 
and corner nippers. The cups are 
not likely to disappear at as regular 
intervals in the upper jaw as they 
did in the lower. Therefore it is not 
always possible to tell the age of the 
horse so accurately (Fig. 22). 

51. Ten years old. — At ten years 
of age, the cups have disappeared 
from the upper intermediates, but 
are still retained in the corner nip- 
pers, though shallow. The teeth are 
more triangular in shape, and those 
of the upper and lower jaw meet at 
a sharper angle as the age increases 
(Fig. 23). 

52. Eleven years old. — At eleven 
years, the cups are gone from all the 
nippers of the upper j aw. However, 
because of the fact that some horses 
have denser bones than others, it is 
not uncommon to find shallow cups in the upper corner teeth as 
late as the twelfth or the fifteenth year (Fig. 24). 

53. Aged horses. — After the horse has passed the twelfth year, 



Fig. 25. — Upper front teeth at 
twenty-one years of age. Note 
the triangular form. 




Fig. 26. — Side view at five years 
of age. 



38 



Animal Husbandry 




Fig. 27. — Side view at twenty-one 
years of age. Note the sharp 
angle at which the tee.th meet. 



a year or two matters little. Much 
depends on the individuality of the 
animal, as some animals are worth 
more at fifteen than others at twelve. 
One's judgment of the value of a 
horse at these ages should be formed 
on general appearances and activi- 
ties rather than on age. 

In old horses, the nipper teeth 
have become nearly triangular, 
showing long wear and meeting at 
an acute angle. The tusks are large, 
blunt, and round (Figs. 25, 27). 



DETECTING UNSOUNDNESS 

A satisfactory definition of soundness or unsoundness is not 
easily given. The term " unsound " as used by horse-dealers 
in this country is often loosely applied. It may mean anything 
from a bad habit to a defect that renders the animal absolutely 
worthless. The best usage warrants dividing these imperfections 
into two classes, — blemishes and unsoundnesses. 

54. Blemish. — This may be defined as something that de- 
preciates the value of a horse without interfering with his useful- 
ness, such as wire cuts, car bruises, and the like, which mar the 
appearance of a horse but do not limit his functions. 

55. Unsoundness. — This may be defined as an imperfection 
of so serious a nature as to interfere with the usefulness of a horse, 
such as ring-bones, side-bones, splints, curbs, and the like. 

56. Impaired vision. — A horse by its action will usually betray 
imperfect eyesight. Blind horses have a peculiar high stepping 
gaiter are inclined to shy readily and often without cause. The 
ears are exceedingly active, as if trying to aid the eyes. Blind- 
ness may be discovered by moving the hand gently in front of the 



Judging Horses 39 

eyes or by closing the eye with the hand and excluding the light 
for a moment ; the pupil should dilate to its utmost capacity ; 
when the hand is removed and the light strikes the eye, the pupil 
should rapidly contract to its normal size. This shows that the 
eye is sensitive to light. 

57. Defective hearing. — When the horse's ears are rigid, it in- 
dicates that the hearing is defective. The animal is unresponsive 
when spoken to, and the eyes are active. Defective hearing is 
more common than supposed. 

58. Poll-evil. — This is a disease located at the top of the head 
and is indicated by the parts being exceedingly tender. Its causes 
are many, and it is very serious. 

59. Sweenied shoulders. — This is a wasting away of the muscle 
on the outside of the shoulder blade. This can be readily detected, 
as the shoulder appears flat and the blade bare of muscle. 

60. Fistulae. — Exceeding tenderness at the withers may in- 
dicate that the horse has fistulae, though at the time there may be 
no external signs. 

61. Splints. — Bony bunches on the inside of the cannon are 
called splints. These must not be confused with the two small 
bones associated with the cannon. Splints located on the back 
part of the leg near the tendon or close to the knee joint are con- 
sidered most objectionable, as they are likely to interfere with the 
action and cause the animal lameness. When located on the side 
they are less likely to cause lameness and. are not so objectionable. 

62. Ring-bones. — Bony bunches on the fetlock and pastern are 
called ring-bone. There are two forms, called high and low, 
depending on the location. 

63. Side-bone. — Just at the top of the hoof, on either side, the 
cartilages should be examined to see that they are not ossified, 
forming side-bones. These are common on the front feet only. 

64. Scratches. — These are located on the back of the pastern, 
and can be easily detected ; they often cause the horse a great 
deal of pain and annoyance. 



40 Animal Husbandry 

65. Unsound hoofs. — The hoofs should be closely examined 
for quarter cracks, thrush, corns, and laminitis. 

66. Thoroughpin. — This occurs between the tendon and the 
upper point of the hock. It consists of a soft swelling and may be 
easily detected, as it can be pushed from side to side. 

67. Spavin. — There are three kinds of spavin — bone, bog, 
and occult. Bone-spavin is the most common, and consists of a 
bony growth on the inside and front of the hind leg just below the 
hock. Bog-spavin occurs in the natural depression on the inner 
and front part of the hock and consists of a soft swelling, formed 
by the oil, which accumulates from the joint. 

68. Curb. — This occurs on the back of the cannon just below 
the hock. It may be easily detected by looking at the leg from the 
side, as it is a variation from a straight line that should run from 
the point of the hock to the fetlock joint. 

69. Forging and overreaching. — A horse is said to forge when 
the shoes of the hind feet strike those of the fore feet, making a 
characteristic sound. Overreaching is the striking of the fore 
and hind feet in such a way as to injure the horse. 

THE HORSE SCORE-CARD 

The score-card gives, in systematic order, a detailed description 
of the parts of an ideally perfect animal. It emphasizes the rela- 
tive importance of the various parts, and teaches the method 
of seeing the parts in a logical and orderly way that none may 
escape observation. The score-card deals with one animal, com- 
paring it with an ideal of what the animal should be. It is pri- 
marily an aid to the study and teaching of stock-judging. After 
having learned the method of examination, — the art of seeing the 
parts instead of the animal as a whole, — and after securing an idea 
of the relative importance of the parts, we are ready to discard 
the card and take up comparative judging. 

70. Method of using the score-card. — Both types of horses are 
placed on the same card in this book, although the description and 



Judging Horses 41 

the numerical value differ in nearly every case. This has been 
done to facilitate teaching, as it indicates rather vividly the dif- 
ference in the two types. The card is divided into several main 
divisions, each of which is assigned a numerical value, and these 
are again divided into a number of parts, each of which is described. 
At the right of each description is given a figure which shows the 
percentage value attached to each particular part. 

71. In scoring, first note that part critically, and if the animal 
is as nearly perfect as possible, leave blank the column headed 
" Students," which means that there is no cut, and that the part 
is worth all the card allows. If the part is imperfect, make a cut 
taking away from the numerical value assigned the part, the per- 
centage which indicates how much it would have to be improved 
to be perfect. Make the cut on the percentage basis, that is, if 
scoring say the weight of a draft horse which is deficient 10 per 
cent, take 10 per cent of the numerical value given the character, 
which is .8. Place the .8 in the column headed " Students." 
Continue until all parts have been noted in the order given and 
the deficiencies recorded. Add the deficiencies and subtract from 
100, which gives the score of the animal. When the work has been 
finished, each student should correct his card to correspond with 
that of the instructor, who will give his reasons for each cut made 
and discuss the merits and demerits of the animal in detail. 

72. Rules of scoring. — It is not considered advisable to make 
a cut of less than 5 per cent on the percentage basis. Seldom will 
a part deserve a cut of more than 50 per cent, as an important 
part deserving a greater cut than this is so seriously at fault that 
it may disqualify the animal. The scorer must use his judgment 
in deciding the proportionate score to allow between these limits. 
It takes a very good animal to score 80, and an exceedingly choice 
one to score 90 and above. 

Score-card for horses. — Each breed of horses has its own 
scale of points varying in detail and numerical value, but they 
are similar to the following : — 



42 



Animal Husbandry 



STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 

Horses 





Points Deficient 




For Draft 


For Driving 


Scale of Points 


V 


03 


T3 


T3 


« V, 




c3 
02 


1=1 

=5 
0Q 


+3 

o 

O 

o 


03 

Pi 
c3 


0) 

=3 
W. 


a 

o 

O 


A. General Appearance : Draft 35 : Driving 43 : 












Age — Estimated yrs ; actual yrs. 














Height — Estimated hands ; actual .... hands . 








8 






Weight — Estimated lbs ; actual lbs. . 


8 












Form, for draft, low, massive, symmetrical ; for driving 
high, lithe, indicative of extreme activity .... 


6 






4 






Quality, bone, flat ; tendons, clean ; skin and hair fine . 


8 






10 








1 






2 






Action, step, smooth, quick, long; trot, rapid, straight 


4 






10 








5 
3 






5 

4 






Temperament, lively, pleasant 




B. Head and Neck : Draft 5 : Driving 5 : 














Head, lean ; length, two-fifths height of withers ; width 
of forehead, more than one-third length of head ; depth 
of head, one-half its length. For driving, smaller 
carried higher and more horizontal 


1 






1 






Muzzle, fine ; nostrils, large ; lips, thin ; teeth sound . 


1 






1 






Eyes, full, bright, and intelligent 


1 






1 






Ears, short, clean, fine, directed forward, wide apart . 


1 






1 






Neck, pyramidal, muscled ; throat, clean, fine ; windpipe 
large. Depth of insertion at shoulder equals length 
of underline, 2 to 4 inches shorter than head. For draft 
neck shorter, thicker, more horizontal 


1 






1 






C. Forequarters : Draft 20 : Driving 19 : 














Shoulders, long, extending into back ; point of shoulder 
to point of withers, equals length of head. For draft 


3 

1 
2 






2 

1 
2 






Arms, relatively short, 12 to 13 inches. For draft, more 
horizontal 




Forearms, vertical, long, 14 to 15 inches ; wide. For draft 
shorter, more heavily muscled 




Knees, clean cut, wide, deep, for driving, 2 inches, for draft 


3 






*} 






Cannons, vertical, short, 9 to 10 inches, lean, wide ; ten- 
dons well detached. For driving, longer .... 


2 






2 






Fetlocks, wide, thick, clean, free from puffiness . 


1 






1 







Judging Horses 



43 



STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD— Continued 
Horses 



Scale of Points 



Pasterns, angle 45 degrees, fetlock to ground, 7 to 8 inches. 
For driving, long, sloping ; for draft, short, more upright 

Feet, round, even size ; horn dark colored, dense ; sole, 
concave ; bars, strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel, verti- 
cal, one-half length of toe 

D. Body : Draft 10 : Driving 8 : 

Chest in general, high, long. For draft, wide, half height 
of horse ; for driving, higher 

Withers, clearly defined for driving 

Breast, for driving, high, projecting. For draft, broad 
and muscular 

Ribs, long, round curvature, wide apart 

Back, straight, short, muscular ; shoulders, to haunch 
equals length of head. For driving, longer .... 

Loin, wide, short, thick, strongly joined to hips .... 

Underline, long ; for draft, flank low 



E. Hindquarters : Draft 30 : Driving 25 : 

Hips, level, wide in proportion to other parts, for draft, 
smooth ; for driving more prominent 

Croup, wide, long, muscular, 2 to 4 inches shorter than 
head. For driving, horizontal ; for draft, shorter, more 
oblique 

Tail, set and carried high, long, full, fine 

Thighs, for driving, long, 15 to 16 inches, upright ; stifle, 
deviated outward. For draft, shorter, more horizontal, 
muscular 

Buttocks, heavily muscled, well descended 

Gaskins, for driving, long, 14 to 15 inches, upright; for 
draft, shorter, more horizontal, heavily muscled . 

Hocks, clean cut, large, straight, deep, for driving 3 inches, 
for draft 4 inches. For draft wider 

Cannons, 11 to 12 inches long, otherwise as above . 

Fetlocks as above ' . 

Pasterns as above ; angle 60 degrees 

Feet, compared with above, more oval, more concave ; 
heels, higher, more separated ; walls, more vertical . . 



Total 



Points Deficient 



For Draft For Driving 



44 



Animal Husbandry 



73. Measurements of horses. — Since the light type differs in 
conformation from the heavy type, a few exact measurements 
are recorded to fix in mind the more important differences. The 
heavy horses measured were from transfer stables and the light 
horses from the Columbus, Ohio, Driving Park : — 



Parts Measured 



Number of horses measured .... 
Weight 

Height at withers 

Height at croup 

From point of shoulder to point of buttock 
From the lowest point of chest to ground 
Circumference of body at girth . . . 

Length of head 

Length of shoulder 

From withers to hip 

From point of hock to ground .... 
From point of hock to hip 




61.7' 
61.6 
62.8 
34.0 
70.0 
24.6 
23.9 
28.5 
24.0 
40.0 



GENERAL APPEARANCE IN LIGHT HORSES 

The height, form, action, quality, color, and temperament are 
very important characters among light horses, and add to or 
detract from their desirability. 

74. The height. — The unit for measuring the height of a horse 
is a hand, which is equal to four inches. Where the accurate 
height is desired, a measuring staff, marked off in hands and inches, 
is used. Where absolute accuracy is not desired, and where the 
measuring staff is not available, the height must be estimated. 
This can be facilitated by chinning the horse, first finding out how 
high it is from the ground to the point of your chin when you 
stand erect. The measurement of the height is taken at the 
withers. 



Judging Horses 



45 



75. Form. — One of the first characters to attract attention 
among light horses is the general form. This varies according to 
the object sought, that of the coacher being full and plump, while 
that of the trotter or runner will be lean and angular. The posi- 
tion and direction of the limbs should receive special consideration. 




Fig. 28. — Light horse of good form. 



They should be viewed from in front, from behind, and from either 
side. The fore leg when viewed from the side should be so formed 
that a plumb line dropped from the elbow joint would pass through 
the middle of the knee, the cannon, and the fetlock, and fall a short 
distance behind the heel ; when viewed from in front, the line 
lowered from the point of the shoulder would divide equally the 
knee, the cannon, and the foot, leaving between the two feet an 
interval equal to the width of the hoof. The hind leg when viewed 
from behind should be so formed that a plumb line lowered from 
the point of the buttock will pass through the middle of the hock, 
cannon, pastern, and foot, leaving between the two feet an in- 
terval almost equal to the width of the hock. This line should 
also just touch the back of the hock and the pastern joint 
(Fig. 28). 






46 



Animal Husbandry 



76. Action. — In the market for light horses there is no single 
feature held in higher estimation than that of good action. De- 
sirable action varies according to the objects ought, but to sell well 
a light horse must possess as much as may be displayed and used 
to advantage. Excellence at a walk is a very desirable quality 
in all types of horses. The feet of the active walkers leave the 
ground with a quick snap, and move straight away, swerving 

neither to the right 
nor to the left, nor 
should the folding of 
the knees or the flex- 
ing of the hocks result 
in an outward pitch- 
ing or spreading. In 
addition to being 
snappy, regular, and 
straight, it should be 
fast. 

Action at the trot 
will vary according to 
the class. In the 
roadster a strong, 
long-reaching knee- 
and-hock action, with the feet picked up quickly, is most essential. 
The stride should be long and not too high. In the coacher, a 
rather high, bold knee-and-hock action is most sought. In all 
classes the movement should be straight and regular (Fig. 29). 

77. Quality. — This is a term rather loosely applied and has 
reference to the bones, skin, and hair. Evidences of desirable 
quality are clean-cut features, soft skin, silky hair, and clean dense 
bone. In those horses possessing quality the lines of the face are 
clearly defined, the veins in the skin show clearly, and there is a 
complete absence of coarseness. Freedom from coarseness in 
the joints and tendons emphasizes soundness and guarantees 




Fig. 29. — Light horses with stylish action. 



Judging Horses 47 

durability. Another evidence of quality is seen in those animals 
whose muscles stand out clearly defined and distinct. 

Coarse hair is associated with coarse thick skin, which indicates 
an abundance of connective tissue, which in turn is associated with 
soft, spongy bones that cannot endure strain or hard usage. 

78. Temperament. — This is reflected in the action and man- 
ners. It should be lively and pleasant. When possible, the pur- 
chaser should know something of the ancestors of the horse under 
consideration, as a horse may inherit characteristics which can- 
not be discovered until he has been used some time, and peculiarities 
of temper are among these characters. 

DETAIL CHARACTERS OR FEATURES OF A LIGHT HORSE 

79. Head. — Among light horses the head should be, lean, with 
broad forehead tapering towards the nostrils, and the features 
of the face should be distinct. The nostrils should be large, open, 
and of pink color. The eye should be large, full, clear, and bright, 
indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good health. The 
jaw-bones should be strong and wide, providing ample room for 
a large wind-pipe. The ears should be active, refined, neither 
large nor small, carried close and erect and turning slightly in at 
the tips. Lop ears indicate laziness. A smooth neat attachment 
of head to neck is highly essential. 

80. Neck. — A nicely arched and well-muscled neck of good 
length, carrying the head gracefully, is a highly desirable feature 
of , the light horse. Much of the style and symmetry of the coach 
horse is observed in the make-up and carriage of the head and neck. 
The neck and body should blend smoothly at the attachment. 

81. Chest. — Among light horses the chest should obtain its 
capacity more from depth than width. A deep chest permits 
a freer play of the shoulders, and indicates staying power. 

82. Shoulders. — To give elasticity to the movement and to 
permit of quick and clean action, the shoulder should be long and 



48 Animal Husbandry 

sloping well into the back, thus strengthening the back and ex- 
tending the length of the underline. The high action of the coach 
horse and the long-reaching clean action of the roadster depend 
much on a long oblique shoulder. 

83. Arms. — Among light horses the arm should be short and 
comparatively upright, giving the animal an upstanding appear- 
ance. 

84. Elbows. — The elbow should work snugly alongside the 
animal; if too closely " tied in," as it is termed, the toes are 
usually thrown out ; if turned out, the toes are likely to be thrown 
in. 

85. Fore-arms. — These should be long, wide, and well muscled. 
The muscles should be well developed and stand out distinctly 
just below the junction of the leg and body and taper gracefully 
downward. 

86. Knees. — The knees should be wide, deep, and straight. 
They should be much broader in front than the remainder of the leg, 
either above or below. The bone forming the projection at the 
back of the knee should be prominent, since this gives a better at- 
tachment for the muscles and tendons, which pass over it, thereby 
giving the leg a deeper appearance and increasing the efficiency. 

87. Cannons. — Cannon-bones should be short, wide, clean, and 
the tendons well detached. The back tendons should be parallel 
to the cannon-bones, and there should be no shrinking below the 
knees, as this indicates weakness. The cannon should be free 
from bony growths and puffiness. 

88. Fetlocks. — They should be clean, free from fullness due to 
wind-galls, and should be wide, giving favorable attachments to 
the tendons. 

89. Pasterns. — The pasterns should be sloping and strong. 
When the horse is standing, they should form an angle of 45 
degrees with the floor and 135 degrees with the cannons. The up- 
right pasterns cannot resist concussion, and bone diseases, such 
as ring-bones, side-bones, and the like, are the result. Again, it 



Judging Horses 49 

lessens the usefulness of the light horse, especially the saddler, 
as the step is short and stilted and very disagreeable to the rider. 

90. Feet. — They should be round, dense, fine in texture, of 
good size, and perfectly sound. They should be of equal size and 
shape and in line with the pastern. The hoof should have an oily 
coat of natural wax, and should not appear flat, brittle, shelly, 
or contracted. The heel should be rather vertical and about 
one-half length of toe. The sole should be concave ; the bars 
strong, and the frog large, elastic, and bear the mark of natural 
usage as a buffer. The dark-colored feet seem to be in favor. 

91. Ribs. — These should be well sprung from the spine, of 
good length, and well inclined to the rear. The well-sprung rib 
gives lung capacity, the deep rib gives digestive capacity, and the 
ribs well inclined to the rear add much to the strength of the back. 

92. Body. — The back should be short, strong, and well mus- 
cled. The body should have a short back with a long underline 
which not only adds strength to the back, but gives the legs free 
play and insures freedom of movements. The long back, the 
roach back, and the sway back are all very objectionable. 

93. Loins. — These should be wide, short, thick, and strongly 
joined. This combination results when the ribs are directed well 
backward. If the distance from the last rib to the hip is great, 
the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and irregular in his 
action. 

94. Croup. — This should be long, muscular, and fairly straight. 
The croup of light horses should be more horizontal than in heavy 
horses. This in connection with its length allows greater play of 
the main muscles, which is favorable to the production of speed. 
While examining the croup, the hips should also be observed, to 
see that they are of equal prominence and squarely placed. 

95. Thigh. — This should be muscular, long, and deep. It 
should be so situated as to extend the muscles as far down towards 
the hock as possible, without giving the leg too straight an ap- 
pearance. Horses show much variation in the muscling of the 



50 Animal Husbandry 

quarters ; some are full and heavily muscled, some decidedly 
lacking and called " cat hammed," while others are fairly full in 
this region, with deep, hard muscles. 

96. Hocks. — The hocks should be wide, properly set, and clean. 
They should also be free from gumminess, fleshiness, and puffs 
of all kinds, and the bone firm without the least indication of un- 
soundness. The bone forming the point of the hock should be 
prominent, since this gives a better attachment for the muscles 
and tendons which pass over it, thereby giving the hind leg a 
deeper appearance and increasing its efficiency. 

JUDGING A HEAVY HORSE 

In choosing a heavy horse, it must be borne in mind that the 
fatter the animal the more difficult it is to detect many of the 
defects which would stand out clearly were the animal not padded 
with a thick coat of fat. 

97. General appearance in heavy horses. — The same general 
method should be followed in examining a heavy horse as a light 

one, with the difference, that we 
ML Ste^L place more stress on weight. 

M kr*«^^^^^ 98, Wei S ht - — Among draft 

W**^B ly^ horses, weight is a very important 

■j H consideration; in fact, a horse 

^j P^V must weigh at least 1500 pounds 

^& to be classed as a draft animal. 

Draft horses are divided into 

three classes according to their 

weight : light draft, 1500 to 1600 

nn ' r , , , „ pounds ; medium draft, 1600 to 

Fig. 30. — Draft horse of good form. . , . , „. 

1800 pounds; and heavy dralt, 
1800 pounds and up. This weight must be due to strong bone, 
heavily muscled, as well as to large proportions, and not the result 
of excessive fatness. 




Judging Horses 



51 



99. Form. — In form, the draft horse should be massive, com- 
pact, blocky, and low set. Power and not speed is the require- 
ment, and in order to attain this the animal must be close to the 
ground, strong, and heavy. In animals of speed we find long 
bones, long muscles, and slightly angular joints; in animals of 
strength we find heavy bones, heavy muscles, and a comparative 
freedom from angularity about the joints (Fig. 30). 



Class 



Draft horses 



Chunks 



Wagon horses 



Carriage horses . 



Road horses . 



Saddle horses 



Sub-Class 



Light draft 

Heavy draft 

Loggers 

Eastern and export chunks 
Farm chunks .... 
Southern chunks . . . 

Express horses .... 
Delivery wagon horses . 
Artillery horses . . . 
Fire horses 

Coach horses .... 
Cobs ....... 

Park horses 

Cab horses 

Runabout horses . . . 
Roadsters 

Five-gaited saddle horses 
Three-gaited f Light 
saddle horse \ Heavy 

f Light 1 
Hunters Middle 

[ Heavy j 
Cavalry horses . 
Polo ponies .... 



Weight, 
Pounds 



1500 to 1600 
1600 to 2000 
1750 to 2000 

1300 to 1550 

1200 to 1400 

800 to 1250 

1350 to 1500 
1100 to 1400 
1050 to 1200 
1200 to 1700 

1100 to 1250 

900 to 1150 

1000 to 1150 

1050 to 1200 

900 to 1050 
900 to 1150 

900 to 1200 
900 to 1200 

1000 to 1200 

950 to 1100 
850 to 1000 



52 Animal Husbandry 

100. Action. — While action in the heavy horse is not considered 
as desirable as in the lighter types, yet it should receive much 
attention. The walk deserves special notice since it is the prin- 
cipal gait of the draft horse. 

101. Market classes of horses. — On the market, horses are 
classified largely according to their uses. While there is much 
variation among different horse markets, the preceding table will 
give an idea of the nature and extent of the various market classes 
and sub-classes. Each sub-class is further divided into several 
grades as choice, common, inferior and the like. (See table, p. 51.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is it so essential to cultivate the power of observation in judg- 
ing ? How does the association of ideas strengthen the memory ? 

2. Which is the more symmetrical, a young horse or an old one? 
Which has the more pliable skin, and why? Why do the joints on aged 
horses become prominent ? 

3. How can you tell the sex of a mature horse by examining the 
mouth ? Why do the cups disappear from the lower teeth before they do in 
the upper teeth ? 

4. What does it indicate if a horse rests one front foot by projecting it 
forward ? By flexing it and resting on the toe ? What do the following 
irregularities indicate : — broken teeth ; discharge from nostrils ; rigid 
ears; tender withers; white hairs on front of knees; and small white 
spots over the body ? 

5. What are the principal uses of the score-card ? Why is it never used 
in practical horse- judging? 

6. Why is the hand used in measuring the height of horses? Which 
is the taller, the draft or driving horse ? Which has the longer legs ? 

7. Is the horse as tall from the ground to the withers as his body is long 
from the shoulder to the buttock ? How many head lengths in a horse's 
height ? 

8. Why should the distance from the withers to the knees and from the 
hips to the hocks be great in the trotting horse ? Why comparatively short 
in the draft horse ? 



Judging Horses 53 

9. Why should the shoulders and pasterns be long and sloping in the 
trotting horse and comparatively short and straight in the draft horse ? 

10. Why are rather light, long muscles, working parallel to the bones, 
desired for the fast horse ; and heavy, short muscles, working at right 
angles to the bones, desired in horses for draft ? 



CHAPTER III 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 

The economic feeding of farm animals involves a knowledge 
of the principles underlying the practice. The better knowledge 
one has of the food, its source, use, composition, and digesti- 
bility, the more familiar one is with the function of the various 
food materials, and the balancing of rations, the more intelligently 
can one choose the foods that constitute the ration. 



FOOD 

Food may be denned as any material that an animal can take 
into its digestive organs and from which it can absorb matter for 
the nourishment of its own body. Plants and their products and 
by-products constitute the food of farm animals, although some 
farm animals are in part carnivorous, feeding on other animals 
or parts of animals. The plant during growth absorbs heat from 
the sun, which is held in latent form in the plant compounds. 
When these compounds are taken into the animal body and broken 
apart by digestion, some of this stored heat or energy is trans- 
ferred to the animal body. 

102. Use of food. — The matter and energy the animal collects 
from the food are put to three distinct uses : first, to support life ; 
second, to reproduce life ; and third, reserve supply stored up in 
some form. The animal must maintain its existence, and for' this 
both energy and matter are required. A large part of the energy 
of the food goes to the maintenance of the body temperature. 
The body temperature of farm animals is considerably above that 

54 



Principles of Feeding 



55 



of the surrounding atmosphere, and its maintenance requires 
much heat, as the body is continually giving off heat. The body 
tissues become worn out and must be constantly renewed by the 
matter and energy from the food. In the case of young animals, 
there is a constant formation of new tissue. This requires more 
matter than energy. Again, the muscular function of vital pro- 
cesses requires much energy, which must be supplied by the food. 
Of the total amount of food that an 
animal will ordinarily consume, a 
very large proportion goes to sup- 
port life and. a small amount to 
production. 

103. Composition of food. — The 
value of a food depends, among 
other things, on its composition. 
There is a tendency to ignore the 
fact that a food should be con- 
sidered with reference to its compo- 
sition. It is assumed that a pound 
of timothy hay, for example, is equivalent to a pound of clover hay, 
when as a matter of fact their composition is such as to make them 
widely different, so that one will not take the place of the other. 
The number of compounds found in the food is very large, and 
many of them are very complex in their nature. For convenience 
in comparing foods, these compounds are grouped into classes. 
These classes are few in number, easy to comprehend, and serve 
the purpose well from a practical point of view. We recognize 
five distinct groups, one of which is divided into two sub-groups. 
They are as follows : — 




Fig. 31. — Percheron stallion. 



1. Water 

2. Ash (mineral compounds) 

3. Protein (nitrogenous compounds) 

4. Carbohydrates { ^tog^n-free extract } 

5. Fats 



Dry- 
matter 



56 Animal Husbandry 

It is customary to group together all the substances of a food 
except the water, and to speak of them collectively as dry-matter, 
and not with respect to their total weight. Ash is also eliminated, 
and the remaining three constituents are called nutrients. 

104. Water. — Water is present in all foods, even the driest. 
It varies widely in different foods, running as low as 8 or 10 per 
cent in the case of grains or concentrates, such as corn, oats, or 
cotton-seed meal, and dried brewers' grains, to 85 or 90 per cent 
in the more watery foods, as silage, roots, tubers, and the like. 
Even dry hay varies considerably in this respect, alfalfa containing 
as low as 9 per cent and some clovers as high as 20 per cent. Water 
not being a nutrient, its presence or absence is an important 
factor in determining the usefulness and therefore the value of 
food. 

105. Ash. — Ash or mineral matter is present in all plant 
food, although it forms but a small part, shelled corn containing 
only 1.5 per cent, and alfalfa, one of the highest, containing only 
8 per cent. The leaves and the region of the germ in grain contain 
the most ash. The animal secures the ash from the food directly 
by transfer. Most plants contain sufficient ash to meet the needs 
of the animal, corn and certain prepared foods being the only 
exceptions. In young animals, because of the rapid growth of 
bone that is taking place, in milk cows and egg-production hens 
and the like, it is of special importance to have sufficient mineral 
matter supplied by the food. 

106. Protein. — Of the three nutrients — protein, carbohy- 
drates, and fats — the protein is considered to be the most im- 
portant. This is perhaps due to two factors: first, protein is 
absolutely essential to the animal body, and second, the percentage 
of protein is relatively small in most plants. Like the other 
nutrients, the protein group contains carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, and in addition it also contains nitrogen, which is the 
characteristic element of the entire group. It is on the element 
nitrogen that the importance of this group depends. Protein 



Principles of Feeding 57 

enters largely into the composition of the bones, muscle, lean 
meat, white of egg, and the curd of milk. Animals can procure 
this protein only from the protein of food. 

The amount of digestible protein in various foods varies within 
rather wide limits, corn containing only 8 per cent, while cotton- 
seed meal runs as high as 32 per cent, but the larger number of 
food materials contain rather small amounts of protein. There 
are comparatively few foods that are relatively rich in protein. 
The value of the food depends very largely on the protein that 
it contains. Protein is not, however, as digestible as some of the 
other nutrients. 

107. Carbohydrates. — There are two sub-groups of carbohy- 
drates — nitrogen-free extract and crude fiber. The carbohy- 
drate group contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitro- 
gen. The nitrogen-free extract is composed largely of starches 
and sugars, and constitutes the larger part of the dry-matter of 
most plants. Starch alone forms as much as 75 per cent of the 
dry-matter of corn, wheat, pota- 
toes, and some other foods. It is 
easily digested, more so than any of 
the other three constituents, and 
therefore foods rich in nitrogen-free 
extract are ordinarily classed as 
most readily digestible. Fiber or 
crude fiber constitutes the tough 
woody part of plants. The stems 
of all plants contain more fiber than 
does the leafy part. Variation in FlG> 32. — Clydesdale Mare. 
the digestibility of foods depends 

largely on the amount of crude fiber, which is mostly insoluble and 
hence largely indigestible. Crude fiber is the least valuable of 
the four nutrients, because of its indigestibility. Young plants 
contain less crude fiber than plants that have matured and formed 
seeds, and hence are more digestible. 




58 Animal Husbandry 

108. Fat. — Plants also contain fat or oil. It occurs in largest 
quantities in the seed, and varies widely, running less than 2 per 
cent in rye to 30 and 35 per cent in flaxseed. Fats like carbo- 
hydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but no nitrogen. 
The oil content of food is determined by extracting the fat by 
ether ; hence in tables giving composition of food, the fat is often 
designated as ether extract. A given weight of fat will develop 
2 \ times as much heat energy as an equal weight of carbohydrates. 
If we multiply fat, therefore, by 2\, it reduces it to the starch or 
carbohydrate equivalent. Fats are not so readily digested as 
nitrogen-free extract. 

FUNCTIONS OF FOOD MATERIALS 

A knowledge of the function of the various food materials will 
enable one to choose and balance a ration more economically, 
and to adapt it to the needs of the animal. 

109. Water. — The water of the food takes the place to a cer- 
tain extent of the water that an animal would otherwise drink. 
In the case of food containing a large amount of water, the total 
consumption of water by the animal will be greater than other- 
wise. Watery foods will not, however, satisfy the animal in this 
respect, as it will still drink water. In many cases the large con- 
sumption of water is of advantage to the animal ; this is partic- 
ularly true of the dairy cow, which, in addition to the water needed 
for her own body, secretes large amounts in the milk. Animals 
require much water, particularly the younger ones, whose bodies 
are more than 50 per cent water. 

110. Ash. — The ash or mineral matter is chiefly used in the 
formation of bone, but also to some extent in the tissues, 
blood, digestive fluids, and the like. Young animals fail to 
develop if given no mineral matter, and mature animals be- 
come weak and inactive if deprived of common salt. Hogs, 
if closely confined, and fed on corn alone, are likely to be 



Principles of Feeding 59 

weak-boned because of the lack of mineral matter in the food. 
If to the corn ration some food rich in mineral matter, such 
as alfalfa, or even wood ashes, is added, no difficulty is ex- 
perienced. Hens always require more lime than is found in the 
food. This is strikingly illustrated when we compare the com- 
position of eggs and corn, for example, the former containing 
12.2 per cent ash, the latter only 1.5 per cent. The ash in the 
food of the milk cow also deserves special consideration on ac- 
count of phosphoric acid, lime, and potash so abundantly found in 
the milk which she secretes. 

111. Protein. — So far as known, the proteids of the food are 
the only source of the< proteids of the body. In other words, 
the muscles, the connective tissues, the blood, the skin, the hair, 
the horn, the hoofs, and the larger part of the tissues of the secretive 
and excretive organs, owe their formation to the protein of the food. 
Since these are the tissues that largely determine the vigor and 
quality of the animal, and since they are formed rapidly in the 
early stages of growth, a normal and continuous development 
demands an abundant supply of protein food. In addition to 
this, protein is a source of fat and can serve as fuel, or as a source 
of energy. 

112. Carbohydrates. — Carbohydrates are used to maintain 
heat and to produce fat. Formerly it was thought that carbohy- 
drates were used for the former purpose only, but it is now well 
established that the animal fats may have their source in the 
carbohydrates. Again, experiments with milk cows show clearly 
that milk-fat may also be derived from carbohydrates. Because 
carbohydrates can be used as heat-producers and as fat-formers, 
and because of their ease of digestion and cheapness of production, 
this group of nutrients is very important. 

113. Fat. — Fat, like carbohydrates, serves as a source of 
heat and of animal fat. The differences are that the supply 
of carbohydrates is much larger, and the heat value of a simi- 
lar weight of fats much greater, — as we have already seen 



60 Animal Husbandry 

2 J times as great. There seems to be experimental evidence 
showing that vegetable fat becomes deposited in the animal 
without change, whereas fat formed from carbohydrates in- 
volves complex transformation. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOOD 

The value of food depends on the digestibility of the various 
materials of which it is composed, and not alone on its composition 
as shown by a chemist. In order to get a clear conception of 
digestion, it will be necessary to review briefly the process through 
which the food materials must pass on their way from the food to 
the flesh or energy of the animal body. 

114. Digestion. — The process of digestion is largely a process 
of solution, aided to a certain extent by chemical changes that take 
place through the influence of various ferments with which the 
food comes in contact as it passes through the digestive tract. 
The digestive organs form a canal through the body, and the food 
in its passage through this tract or canal is acted upon by various 
fluids. Each fluid has a special work to do in the process of 
digestion. The food is taken into the mouth, where it is reduced 
to fine particles in order that the digestive juices may better do 
their work and in order to put it into condition to be swallowed. 
During this mastication, a digestive fluid, called saliva, is poured 
upon the food, moistening it and changing a part of the starch to 
sugar. After leaving the mouth the food passes down the esoph- 
agus into the stomach, where the digestive fluid, called gastric 
juice, is poured upon it, changing part of the protein. When the 
food leaves the stomach, it enters the small intestines, where it 
comes in contact with two digestive fluids — the bile from the 
liver, and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas. The bile 
prepares the partly digested food for the action of the pancreatic 
juice and changes the fats. The pancreatic juice has a more 
complex function. It contains at least three distinct ferments, 



Principles of Feeding 61 

one changing the proteids, another the starch, and the third the 
fats. As the material passes along the intestines it comes in con- 
tact with a juice secreted by the walls of the intestines which acts 
upon the starch, but there is little action on the proteids and fats. 
From the time the food enters the stomach, during its entire 
course along the digestive tract, in some way not wholly under- 
stood, the digested food has been absorbed and received into 
vessels, through which it is distributed to the various parts of the 
body. A part of the food mate- 
rials, however, in passing through 
the digestive tract, escapes diges- 
tion. The amount of food di- 
gested depends on the kind of food, 
the amount fed, the class of animal, 
and the condition of the animal's 
health. 

115. Size of digestive organs. — 
The length and capacity of the di- 
gestive organs of the various farm Fig. 33. — Shire mare, 
animals differ widely. Among ru- 
minating animals, — those capable of re-chewing the previously 
swallowed food, the cow, sheep, and goat, — ■ the stomach is 
a very complicated organ. It has four divisions or sacks 
called paunch, honeycomb, many-plies, and rennet. The paunch 
is very large and may be considered as a reservoir for the stor- 
age of bulky foods. Because of this provision, ruminating ani- 
mals can be fed on foods containing much more bulk than can 
the pig or horse. The food during its retention in the paunch 
becomes thoroughly softened and undergoes some fermentation, 
then it is re-chewed, — called chewing the cud, — and swallowed. 
The stomach of the horse and pig is a single sack and has not 
nearly so great capacity. 

The varying length of intestines and capacity of stomach in 
farm animals is illustrated in the following table : — 




62 Animal Husbandry 

Length op Intestines and Capacity of Stomach of Farm Animals 



Animals 


Capacity, Quarts 


Total 


Length, Feet 


Stomach 


Intestines 


Intestines 


Horse ...... 

Cow 

Sheep 

Hog 


19.0 

266.9 

31.3 

8.5 


204.8 

109.8 

15.4 

20.5 


223.8 

376.7 

46.7 

29.0 


98.1 

187.2 

107.3 

77.1 



116. Digestible nutrients. — Digestible nutrients are those 
parts of food materials that are digested and appropriated to the 
animal's use. Our knowledge of the amount of the food materials 
that are digested is based on experimental data, and while not 
absolutely accurate, is sufficiently so for practical purposes. The 
method of determining the digestible nutrients is as follows : the 
animal is fed for a sufficient length of time on a certain food or 
combination of foods, so that the digestive organs contain only 
the food under test. Then for a certain length of time the animal 
is fed a carefully weighed allowance of some food, the composition 
of which has been previously determined by a chemist. Provision 
is then made for collecting all excreta. By making an analysis 
of this waste matter, the undigested protein, carbohydrates, and 
fat are found. This, deducted from the total in the food, gives 
the digested part. The amount of each constituent digested 
divided by the total in the food gives the percentage digestible. 
This is called the " coefficient of digestibility." Having the com- 
position of the food as determined by the chemist, and the digestible 
coefficient as determined with the animal, it is an easy matter to 
calculate the amount of digestible nutrients in the various food- 
stuffs. It is with the digestible nutrients, and not the total food 
materials, that the feeder is concerned in choosing a ration. A 
great deal of work has been done at the various experiment stations 



Principles of Feeding 63 

to determine the digestibility of food-stuffs. For ready reference 
Table 6, showing the amount of digestible nutrients in a large 
number of foods, is published in the Appendix. 

117. Digestibility of food materials. — Among the various food 
materials the carbohydrates as a rule are the most digestible, 
running as high as 95 per cent in case of corn, while the crude 
fiber is the least digestible, and between these lie fat and' protein. 
In general the fat is more digestible than the protein. As a rule, 
the digestible coefficient falls when large amounts of foods are 
used. If we crowd the consumption of food, the animal does not 
digest it as thoroughly as it would if fed smaller amounts". On 
the other hand, we cannot secure a greater digestibility by limit- 
ing the consumption. Animals under a starving ration do not 
digest any more than when fed a normal amount. The grains are 
more highly digestible than the coarse fodders ; for example, in 
corn the protein is 76 per cent digestible, the crude fiber 58, the 
nitrogen-free extract 93, and the fat 86 per cent digestible, while 
in timothy hay the protein is 56 per cent, the crude fiber 58, the 
nitrogen-free extract 63, and the fat 57 per cent digestible. 

MAINTENANCE RATIONS AND PRODUCTIVE RATIONS 

A ration may be defined as the quantity of food that is con- 
sumed by an animal weighing one thousand pounds in twenty- 
four hours. In forming rations, it is necessary to take into ac- 
count the purpose for which the animal is used. For convenience 
of study, rations are divided into two general classes, — rations 
for maintenance and rations for production. 

118. Maintenance rations. — A maintenance ration is one that 
supplies the needs of a resting animal without producing any kind 
of labor and with no loss or gain of body substance. We have 
already seen that a certain amount of the food consumed by the 
animal goes to support life, maintain body temperature, repair 
waste tissue, and to provide muscular activity of vital processes. 



'64 Animal Husbandry 

Since the demands on the body for maintenance are largely for 
the production of muscular energy and heat, nine-tenths or more 
of the maintenance ration may consist of carbohydrates. 

119. Productive rations. — Productive rations may be looked 
upon as made up of two parts : that which is needed to maintain 
the animal, and that which may be applied to production after 

the bodily needs have been sup- 
M^^^ P^ e d' ft ^ s the food consumed and 

Jm ; v _,. digested in excess of the amount 

^l^^B lT**\ required for maintenance that en- 

ables the animal to produce. The 
ll PWHr question, then, is as to the quan- 

wR \ \* tity of food the animal will con- 

M^ sume and make sufficient returns 
^* .41 Jm f° r m production. While it is 

true in a sense that the amount 
Fig. 34.— Belgian stallion. of production is in proportion to 

the amount of food assimilated 
in excess of that required for maintenance, it is only within 
rather narrow limits that this relation holds strictly true. The 
individuality of the animal plays an important part. All 
farm animals will eat and digest more food than is required 
for maintenance, but the amount of product that comes 
from this excess of food is variable, and in many cases this 
makes the difference between a profitable and an unprofitable 
animal. 

120. Feeding-standards for farm animals. — A feeding-stand- 
ard is a rule to which all rations should conform for a given pur- 
pose. The Germans have done much work in establishing such 
standards, which have long been in general use as guides in com- 
puting rations for farm animals. More recently, Kuhn, Kellner, 
Armsby, and others, working with the energy value of food, have 
suggested feeding-standards based upon the amount of energy 
required to yield a given product. 



Principles of Feeding 65 

BALANCED RATION 

A balanced ration is one that contains the food nutrients in 
the proper proportion to meet the needs of the animal for a given 
purpose. Skill in balancing a ration depends much on one's 
knowledge of the composition and digestibility of the more com- 
mon foods. 

121. Nutritive-ratio. — The nutritive-ratio is the proportion 
between the digestible protein in a given food and the digestible 
carbohydrates and fats. It is ascertained in the following man- 
ner : multiply the digestible fat by 2|, add the product to the 
digestible carbohydrates, and divide their sum by the digestible 
protein. 

The method of calculating the nutritive-ratio of corn, the digest- 
ible nutrients of which are protein 7.8, carbohydrates 66.8, and 
fat 4.3, is as follows : — 



Fat 
4.3 




X 


Heat Equivalent 
21 


= 


9.67 


9.67 




+ 


Carbohydrates 

66.8 


= 


76.47 


76.47 
Nutritive-ratio 1 


9.8. 


■*■ 


Protein 

7.8 


= 


9.8 



This gives a nutritive-ratio of 1 : 9.8 for corn, and it means that 
for each pound of digestible protein in the corn there are 9.8 pounds 
of digestible carbohydrate and fat equivalent. A nutritive-ratio 
may be distinguished as " narrow " or " wide." A narrow ration 
is one in which the proportion of protein is quite large, say 1 : 4.5, 
whereas a wide ration is one where the carbohydrates are large, 
say 1 : 8 or 1:10. These terms do not represent exact values, but 
are used in a general way. 

122. Computing rations. — There are two methods of computing 
rations in common practice : first, according to the digestible nu- 



66 



Animal Husbandry 



trients in the food, usually known as the Wolff-Lehman method, 
and second, according to the energy value of the food, commonly 
known as the energy or Armsby method. 1 

123. Wolff-Lehman method. — To illustrate the method of 
calculating a ration for a given purpose, we will assume the case 
of a horse weighing approximately 1000 pounds and at moderate 
work. From the discussion on food requirements for the horse, 
p. 71, we learn that the standard ration is as follows : — 



Dky-Matter 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Ratio 


24.0 


2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


1:6.2 



Let us choose from Table 6 of the Appendix such foods as will 
supply the conditions. For a trial ration, we will take fourteen 
pounds of timothy hay, ten pounds of oats, and two pounds 
of bran. The digestible nutrients in these are calculated as 
follows : — 

Calculation of Dry-Matter and Digestible Nutrients in Trial 
Ration for a Horse at Medium Work 





Timothy 


Hay 




Ground Oats 


In 100 

Pounds 

86.8 - 
2.8 - 

42.4 - 
1.3 - 


- 100 X 14 

- 100 X 14 

- 100 X 14 

- 100 X 14 


= 


In 14 
Pounds 

12.152 
0.392 
5.936 
0.182 


In 100 
Pounds 

88.0 - 

10.1 - 
52.5 - 

3.7 - 


- 100 X 10 = 

- 100 X 10 = 

- 100 X 10 = 

- 100 X 10 = 


In 10 
Pounds 

8.80 
1.01 
5.25 
0.37 



In like manner, calculate the digestible nutrients in two 
pounds of bran and arrange the result in tabular form as 
follows : — 



Farmers' Bulletin, No. 346, United States Department of Agriculture. 



Principles of Feeding 67 

First Trial Ration for 1000-Pound Horse at Moderate Work 



Food 


Dry- 
Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive- 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Ratio 


14 lb timothy .... 
10 lb. oats .... 
2 lb. bran 


12.125 

8.800 
1.770 


0.392 
1.010 
0.242 


5.936 
5.250 
0.742 


0.182 
0.370 
0.056 




First trial ration . . . 
Standard 


22.726 
24.000 


1.644 
2.000 


11.928 
11.000 


0.608 
0.600 


1:8.0 
1:6.2 



This trial ration falls considerably below the standard in dry- 
matter and is too wide. We must therefore add a food rich in 
protein. We will try one pound of linseed meal, old-process : — 

Second Trial Ration for 1000-Pound Horse at Moderate Work 



Food 


Dry- 
Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive- 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Ratio 


Ration as above . . . 
1 lb. linseed .... 


22.726 
0.902 


1.644 
0.302 


11.928 
0.320 


0.608 
0.069 




Second trial ration . . 
Standard 


23.628 
24.000 


1.946 
2.000 


12.248 
11.000 


0.677 
0.600 


1:7.0 
1:6.2 



The second trial ration is still slightly too low in dry-matter 
and protein, and somewhat too wide in the ratio. From these 
trial rations we learn the method of calculating ratios. 

124. Armsby's method. — In this method it is necessary to 
know the digestible protein and the energy value for each food. 
The energy value is expressed in therms which is the quantity of 
heat required to raise the temperature of 1000 kilograms (2,204.6 



68 



Animal Husbandry 




Fig. 35. — Suffolk marc. 



pounds) of water one degree C. 
To illustrate the method of cal- 
culating a ration according to the 
energy value of the food, we will 
use the same materials as in the 
Wolff-Lehman illustration. From 
the discussion of energy require- 
ments for the horse, p. 71, we 
learn that the requirement for a 
1000-pound horse at medium work 
is as follows : — 





Kind of Work 


Digestible Protein, Pounds 


Energy Value, Therms 


Medium work 


1.4 


12.40 





By choosing the same trial ration as in the Wolff-Lehman il- 
lustration and using Table 5 of the Appendix for the dry-matter, 
digestible protein and energy value, we get the following : — 

First Trial Ration for a 1000-pound Horse at Medium Work 



Food 


Dry-Matter 


Digestible Protein, Pounds 


Energy Value, Therms 


14 lbs. timothy 
10 lbs. oats . . 
2 lbs. bran . 


12.152 
8.900 
1.762 


0.287 
0.836 
0.204 


4.698 
6.627 
0.964 


First trial ration 
Requirement 


22.814 


1.327 
1.4 


12.289 
12.40 



This trial ration falls considerably below the requirement. 
Now, by adding one pound old-process linseed meal we get the 
following : — 



Principles of Feeding 69 

Second Trial Ration for a 1000-Pound Horse at Medium Work 



Food 


Dry- Matter 


Digestible Protein, Pounds 


Energy Value, 
Therms 


Ration as above 
1 lb. linseed . 


22.814 
0.908 


1.327 
0.275 


• 12.289 
0.789 


Requirement 


23.722 


1.602 
1.4 


13.078 
12.40 



This ration is slightly too low in dry-matter and too high in 
digestible protein and energy value, but it serves to illustrate the 
method of calculating a ration by the energy method. It also 
serves to indicate the difference between the two methods, as ac- 
cording to the Wolff-Lehman standard the protein is practically 
correct, whereas according to the Armsby standard the protein 
is slightly too high. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do plants obtain their nutrients? In what respects do corn 
and wheat differ from clover and alfalfa? How does clover and alfalfa 
enrich the soil ? 

2. Name the more important elements entering into the composition 
of food. Which come from the air and which from the soil ? 

3. Name the elements entering into the composition of protein. Why 
is protein so essential to animal life ? 

4. Why is the animal that masticates its food rapidfy subject to diges- 
tive disorders? Which should masticate its food more thoroughly, the 
horse or the cow? Of the five classes of farm animals which can con- 
sume the larger quantities of forage and why ? 

5. How long does it require each class of farm animals to digest grain, 
dry forage, and succulent food ? 

6. What amount of the total food consumed goes to maintenance ? 
What amount to production ? Does this vary with the season of the year ? 

7. In computing rations which is the more advantageous, -the Wolff- 
Lehman or the Armsby standard ? Which the more scientific ? Which 



70 Animal Husbandry 

the more practical ? Which will meet average farm conditions best and 
why? 

8. Which will encourage maximum food consumption, feeding a narrow 
or a wide ration ? 

9. What are some of the principal advantages and disadvantages in 
balancing rations on the average farm ? 

10. Name the common feeds used in your vicinity. Divide them into 
three groups as follows : first, low protein group, containing less than 10 
per cent; second, medium protein group, containing 10 to 20 per cent; 
and third, high protein group, containing more than 20 per cent. (See 
Table 6 of the Appendix.) 






CHAPTER IV 

FEEDING THE HORSE 

In the feeding of horses it is important to have a standard or 
guide to aid in making up the ration. The guides are especially 
useful to beginners. 

125. Food requirements for work. Many experiments have 
been made to determine the exact relation between the amount 
of muscular work performed and the amount of nutrients required 
per day. And as a result of such work the following standards 
have been suggested: — 

Wolff-Lehman Standard showing the Amount of Food required 
per 1000-Pounds Live Weight for Horses at Light, Medium, 
and Heavy Work 



Condition of Animal 


Dry- 
Matter 


Digestible Nutrients 


Nutritive- 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Ratio 


Light work .... 

Medium work 

Heavy work .... 


20 

24 

26 


1.5 
2.0 
2.5 


9.5 
11.0 
13.3 


0.4 
0.6 

0.8 


1:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 



Armsby's Standards showing the Digestible Protein and Energy 
required for a 1000-pound horse at llght, medium, and heavy 
Work 



Kind of Work 


Digestible Protein, 
Pounds 


Energy Value, 
Therms 


Light work 

Medium work 

Heavy work 


1.0 
1.4 
2.0 


9.80 
12.40 
16.00 



71 



72 Animal Husbandry 

These standards were arranged to meet the need of the average 
horse under normal conditions. They are to serve as guides, to 
be modified to meet conditions, and not as laws, fixed and absolute. 

126. Regularity in feeding. — The importance of regularity in 
everything that pertains to the management of the horse cannot 
easily be overestimated. This applies particularly to feeding. 
Whatever feeding-stuffs are employed in the ration, the horse 
should be fed regularly and uniformly at all times. The horse 
anticipates the feeding hour, and becomes nervous if it is delayed. 
He neighs and coaxes for his food with great regularity. The 
horse's digestive system and his vital activities become accustomed 
to a certain order, which should be followed. To change the 
order for even a single meal produces more or less digestive 
disturbance. 

127. Order of supplying food. — Because of the small size of the 
horse's stomach, the order of supplying grain, hay, and water 
assumes much importance. Investigators have shown that the 
stomach of the horse must fill and empty itself two or three times 
for each meal given. During the fore part of the meal the material 
is pushed into the intestines almost as soon as it enters the stomach 
by the food which follows, while toward the end of the meal, 
passage is slow and the digestion in the stomach more perfect. 
This being true, it would seem that the more nutritious foods 
should be fed toward the end of the meal, especially since some of 
the important nutrients are largely digested in the stomach and 
at the entrance of the small intestines. 

128. Watering the horse. — Many persons feed the horse 
before watering, while others water before feeding. There are 
objections to either method. For best results the horse should 
be watered both before and after feeding. When thus watered 
he will not drink to excess. 

129. Salt. — This should be kept before the horse at all times. 
While little is known from investigations on this subject, it is 
evident from the extreme fondness of the horse for salt that it 



Feeding the Horse 73 

should be regularly supplied him. It is best not to place too much 
before him at a time as some horses will eat it to excess. 

130. Individual rations. — The successful horseman will study 
each individual and modify the ration according to the varied 
needs ; one horse should have a little more than the regular al- 
lowance, and the next possibly a little less, because some horses 
are more difficult to keep in condition than others doing the same 
work and living under similar conditions. 

In handling horses we should remember that they- are very 
sensitive animals and that we cannot be too quiet in our treatment 
of them. Striking them or shouting commands at them is an 
inconsiderate practice ; it causes the animals to lose confidence in 
the master, renders them less teachable, and destroys nervous 
energy. 

FEEDING THE WORK HORSE 

The work horse has a very hearty appetite, a vigorous digestion, 
and responds, more readily than any other animal, to intelligent 
care. He should be fed liberally and frequently, the quantity 
given being regulated by the size of the animal as well as the amount 
and kind of work he is required to do. 

131. Amount to feed. — In general, the horse should be supplied 
with something over two pounds of provender daily for each hun- 
dred pounds of weight. Of this about two-thirds, the exact 
quantity depending on the severity of the labor performed, should 
be grain in some form. If the work is exceedingly heavy, the grain 
in the ration should be increased and the hay diminished ; whereas, 
if the work is light, the grain should be diminished and the hay 
increased. The morning meal should be comparatively light, 
consisting mostly of grain. It should not possess much bulk. 

In many of the larger stables the mid-day meal is omitted. But 
most horsemen think that some grain should be given at noon, 
which seems reasonable from our knowledge of the horse's stomach. 
In any case, the mid-day ration should not be large. 



74 



Animal Husbandry 



The heavy feeding should come at night, after the day's work is 
over, and when the animal has ample time to masticate and digest 
his food. A very good practice is as follows : — 

132. Method of feeding. — For the morning meal, feed one- 
fourth of the horse's ration at least one hour before going to work. 
It should be in condition to be easily and rapidly consumed, so as 




Fig. 36. — A well-fed draft team. Weight 3500 pounds. 



to be well out of the way when the animal is led from the stable. 
After being watered, he is ready for the morning's task. If the 
work is exhausting and exacting, he should be fed after five hours 
of labor. When he comes to the stable at mid-day, he should have 
a drink of fresh, cool water, but he should not drink too rapidly or 
gorge himself if very warm. At this time give him another quarter 
of his daily allowance. No greater service can be rendered the 
horse at this time than to remove the harness so that he can eat 
his meal in quiet and comfort and gain a few minutes of much- 
needed rest. If possible, he should have one hour to consume his 
meal. He should be watered again before going to work. He is 
now ready for the second half of his day's labor. When the horse 
comes to the stable in the evening, tired and warm, he should, first 



Feeding the Horse 75 

of all, be allowed a fresh, cool drink, care being taken as before 
that he does not drink too rapidly. He is now ready for the re- 
mainder of his day's allowance. Unharness at once, and when the 
sweat has dried, give him a thorough brushing. If for some reason 
the horse is forced to stand idle in the stable for a few days, the 
ration should be decreased. Otherwise he will become stocky 
and his legs become swollen and stiff. 

During cold weather a more carbonaceous ration may be used. 
When more food goes to furnish heat for the body, it is reasonable 
that a horse needs a large proportion of heat-making food. Equal 
parts of corn and oats by weight would be more satisfactory and 
ordinarily much cheaper than a larger proportion of oats (Fig. 36). 

133. Cost of ration. — In providing a ration, whether for sum- 
mer or for winter use, due consideration should be given to the cost. 
Roughage is ordinarily much cheaper than grain, but a horse at 
work is unable economically to dispose of a large proportion of 
bulky food. If considerable time and energy must be expended 
in masticating rough feed, the usefulness of the horse for work 
is lessened thereby. The more concentrated the food, within 
proper limits, the less percentage of energy will be needed to make 
it available. The proportion of grain to roughage depends on the 
amount and kind of work to be performed. A horse at hard work 
should never be expected to consume more roughage than grain 
by weight. 

134. Feeding mules. — Mules should be fed similarly to horses. 
A mule is less likely to overfeed and gorge himself than a horse, 
and will make use of coarse foods that the horse will not eat unless 
forced to do so by necessity. Mules are often preferred by large 
business concerns, not that they consume less food for a given 
amount of work than horses, but that their feeding can be trusted 
to less skillful hands without seriously endangering the mule's 
health. If an extra large mess is given the mule, he eats what he 
wishes and leaves the rest ; not so with the tired horse, which will 
eat all the grain that is given him up to the point of seriously 



76 Animal Husbandry 






endangering his health. For best results the ration of the mule 
should be comprised of easily digested and nutritious feeds, which 
should be varied from time to time, as no animal loves a variety 
better than the mule. The ration should be suitable to the kind 
of work. In all essential features the mule is very similar to the 
horse, and what we suggested for horses applies with equal force 
to mules. 

135. Feeding the brood mare. — Mares in foal should be fed 
much as suggested for work horses with perhaps the addition of 
more protein foods, as bran and oil meal. The ration should be 
such as will supply the demands for energy and in addition allow 
abundant nourishment for the development of the foal both before 
and for a time after birth. A very good ration for the pregnant 
mare is as follows: four parts ground oats, four parts wheat bran, 
or its equivalent, and one part linseed meal, with bright clover 
or alfalfa hay for roughage. 

FEEDING THE FOAL 

It is essential that the new-born foal get the first milk from the 
dam. This fore-milk looks thick and yellow. It is a natural 
purgative for the removal of the material that has accumulated in 
the foal's digestive tract during the last few days of its develop- 
ment. Its prompt removal is essential to the life of the colt. 

136. Food for the young foal. — It often happens that the milk 
of the mare is insufficient to promote healthy, vigorous growth in 
the foal, and occasionally it becomes necessary to raise a foal 
entirely independent of the dam. In such cases the best addition 
or substitute for the milk of the mare is that of the cow. The 
milk of the mare has more sugar and less fat than the milk of the 
cow. One should get milk from as fresh a cow as possible, and 
the poorer in fat the better, as mare's milk will average only about 
1.2 per cent fat, while the milk of most cows runs above 3 per cent. 

Gruels, made by boiling beans or peas and removing the skins 



Feeding the Horse 



77 



by pressing the pulp through a sieve, or oil meal and shorts made 
into a jelly by boiling, are excellent for the motherless colt. 

137. Feeding grain. — As soon as the foal is old enough, it 
should be encouraged to nibble at grain, preferably ground oats. 
It will begin to munch in the grain and hay at three or four weeks 




Hackney Coach mare and foal three weeks old. 



of age, and should be encouraged to eat. It will eat only a very 
little at first. If it is necessary that the foal have milk after it is 
two months old, skimmed milk should be substituted for fresh 
cow's milk. Never feed a colt sour milk. Never feed milk from 
unclean vessels. Should there be any trouble from constipation, 
it will be well to add about one-half pint of oil meal per day to the 
ration. Oil meal can be fed with profit to growing colts, as it 



78 Animal Husbandry 

furnishes a large proportion of muscle-forming and bone-forming 
food. 

138. Weaning the foal. — This is more a question of prepara- 
tion than of the absolute removal of the foal from the dam ; and 
the simplicity of the weaning process depends on the thoroughness 
of the preparation. If the foal has been accustomed to grain as 
suggested, if it has been permitted to take increasingly more as it 
grew, then the process will not be difficult, for as the ration in- 
creases in amount of grain, it will decrease in the amount of milk 
consumed. When the time arrives for complete separation, there 
will be very little if any set back or disturbance to either foal or 
dam. 

Foals are usually weaned at four to six months of age, depend- 
ing on conditions. If the mare was bred soon after foaling and con- 
ceived, it is best to wean the foal early, so that the mare will have 
time to recuperate and nourish the fetus. If for any reason mare 
and foal are not doing well, it is perhaps best to wean comparatively 
early. If, on the other hand, the mare has a full flow of milk and 
her services are not needed, there is no reason for weaning the foal 
under six months of age. When dam and foal are separated it 
is better for both that the separation be complete. Care should 
also be taken to see that the new quarters, where the weanlings 
are confined, are so constructed and arranged that they cannot 
injure themselves while fretting over the separation. 

139. Sample rations for the horse. — The following rations are 
collected from various sources and furnish a guide in determining 
the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed the horse 
under various conditions : — 



Feeding the Horse 



79 









Ration 




Weight 






Animal and Work 








Horse 










Grain 


Roughage 


Colt, weaning time . . 




2 lb. oats 


Hay ad lib. 


Colt, one year old . . . 




4 lb. oats 


Hay ad lib. 


Colt, two years old 




6 lb. oats 


Hay ad lib. 


Colt, two years old in train- 








ing 




8 lb. oats 


Hay allowance limited 


Colt, three years old in 








training 




8-10 lb. 
oats 


Hay allowance limited 


Race horse 




15 lb. oats 


6-8 lb. hay 


Hunter, small .... 




12 lb. oats 


12 lb. hay 


Hunter, large .... 




16 lb. oats 


10 lb. hay 


Cavalry horses .... 


1050 


12 lb. oats 


14 lb. hay 


Artillery horses .... 


1125 


12 lb. oats 


14 lb. hay 


Heavy draft 


2000 


12 lb. oats 
3 lb. corn 
6 lb. beans 


15 lb. clover hay 


Farm work 








Farm teams, east 


1220 


8 lb. oats 
6 lb. corn 
2 lb. bran 


10 lb. hay 


Farm teams, east . . . 


1230 


8 lb. corn 
7 lb. bran 


10 lb. hay 


Farm teams, east . . . 


1175 


7 lb. bran 
7 lb. corn 


12 lb. corn-stover 


Farm teams, east . . . 


1180 


6.55 lb. 

corn 
5.45 lb. 

linseed 

meal 


8 lb. hay 


Farm teams, west . . . 


1235 


11.5 lb. 
oats 


14.7 lb. alfalfa hay 


Farm teams, west . . . 


1870 


5 lb. bran 
5 lb. shorts 


25 lb. alfalfa hay 


Farm teams, west . . . 


1385 


1 


19.7 lb. alfalfa hay 


Farm teams, west . . . 1 


1420 




32.6 lb. alfalfa hay 



80 Animal Husbandry 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is it now not thought essential to feed the horse so much 
protein as formerly? Does a hard-working horse use up its muscles? 
Explain. 

2. How do the Wolff-Lehman and Armsby standards compare in re- 
spect to protein, carbohydrates, and nutritive ratio ? Which meets the 
condition of your animals ? 

3. Should the horse be watered at the public watering trough ? Which 
demands more frequent watering, the horse or the cow ? 

4. Name the foods that are commonly fed horses in your vicinity. Find 
out exactly what some persons are feeding and calculate the dry-matter, 
nutritive-ratio, and energy value. Compare with the standards. How 
may it be improved ? 

5. In what season of the year may we feed a comparatively wide 
ration, and why ? 

6. Compare the feeding of the draft horse, driving horse, and idle 
horse. Which is most difficult to keep in good condition ? Why is exer- 
cise essential to the horse ? 

7. Why should the work horse be fed sparingly in the morning and at 
noon ? Why do some drivers neglect the noon meal ? 

8. Why should the brood mare be worked continuously with but a 
week or ten days' rest just after foaling ? Why is moderate work preferred 
to permitting several mares the run of a pasture ? 

9. Should the colt be confined to a stall while its mother is out at work ? 
Explain. Why do so many young colts die under three weeks of age ? 

10. Why have the Arabian people been so successful in producing horses 
of superior quality ? 



CHAPTER V 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 

While we have no available data in the United States on the 
number of horses and mules consumed, or used up, in a year, yet 
a very conservative estimate would be approximately two million, 
this to include export animals as well as those consumed at home. 
These horses must be replaced as consumed, or there will be 
a horse famine. There are approximately ten million mares 
in the United States, of which we will assume one-half, or five 
million, are of breeding age. If we are to raise the two million 
colts, both horse and mule, it means that at least one-half, of this 
number must be bred each year. 

140. Plan of improvement. — A clearly defined plan of pro- 
cedure should be thought out before the farmer makes the attempt 
to breed horses. To do this a good knowledge of horses and horse- 
breeding should be secured. Breeding establishments and horse- 
producing farms should be visited. One should familiarize himself 
with the methods of successful horse-breeders, should note the 
conditions that lead to success and those that cause failure. The 
horse-producer should study his conditions. Some conditions 
will be favorable to the production of one class, some to another. 
It should be kept clearly in mind, whatever the type or class 
chosen, whether it is light or heavy, or for speed or draft, that 
none but superior horses will sell at remunerative prices. There 
will always be an overproduction of common horses, which will 
be the first to be affected by oversupply and other business depres- 
sions, and the last to be revived. The market should be studied 
also. In some sections the demand will be for a certain class and 
in other sections another class will be in most demand. 
g 81 



82 Animal Husbandry 

141. Cooperative breeding. — From observations made in 
localities where horses are bred in a commercial way, it would seem 
advisable to breed on the cooperative plan. It is apparent that 
the formation of horse-breeding associations in townships and 
counties would do much to advance the progress of the industry. 
Such associations should be formed of breeders who possess the 
same class or breed of mares. It would be the work of such an 
association to protect the interests of its members, provide suit- 
able stallions each year for use on the mares owned by the members, 
advertise stock, attract buyers, hold sales, make exhibits at the 
county, district, and state fairs, hold meetings for discussion of 
horse-breeding matters, and educate the farmers of the locality 
to better methods of breeding, feeding, and developing marketable 
horses. 

142. Selecting breeding stock. — In the selection of breeding 
stock, we must keep in mind the principle of heredity that " like 
produces like." This applies to the brood mare as well as to the 
stallion. Bad qualities in the mare are as likely to appear in the 
colt as are bad qualities possessed by the stallion. The influence 
of the mare in the transmission of qualities to the foal is often 
underestimated, and frequently ignored entirely by horse-breeders. 
This cannot be other than a serious mistake, and the farmer who 
keeps worthless mares for breeding simply because he cannot sell 
them, will not be able to compete with his neighbor who keeps 
only the best brood mares, even though they both patronize the 
same stallion. 

It is a serious but common error in breeding horses to suppose 
that the bad points in one animal can be fully offset or overcome 
by the good points in the mate. The statement that the stallion 
controls the outward characters and the mare the internal characters 
has led many breeders to think that the offspring would resemble 
the paternal parent irrespective of the mother. Such is not the 
case. The foundation of successful horse-breeding is to mate 
two animals each of which is as nearly perfect as possible. 



Care and Management of Horses 



83 



143. The breed and type. — Choose the breed which best suits 
the conditions, the markets, and the tastes of the breeders. There 
is no best breed or type for all conditions. Light horses naturally 
belong on land devoted to grass, to dairy industry, and to market- 
gardening, where but little plowing and other heavy horse work 
is required, and the necessity of reaching the market, the station, 
or the creamery requires quick-moving horses. 

On farms devoted to fruit-growing and the like, where the horse 
work is somewhat heavier than on the dairy farm, the coach horse 




Fig. 38. — Uniform Percheron mares. 



may be used. Coach horses are well adapted to fruit farms with 
one exception, — they are rather too tall to be used to best advan- 
tage in tilling under trees in the orchards. 

' On grain farms, where there is much plowing and the work to 
be done is hard, heavy horses are needed. On general farms the 
draft horse finds his true place. Draft horses can be reared with 
less risk than the lighter and more active types, such as the roadster 
and the coachers. They do not require so much training, and can 
be put to light work younger. The draft horse is in great demand 
for city traffic. Again, the roadster and the coacher require much 



84 Animal Husbandry 

training before they can be marketed, if good values are to be 
secured. This training requires skill, time, and money, which 
should be taken into account. A well-bred and well-trained coach 
or driving team will bring a good price, but the skill, time, and 
money required to breed and train them is too great for the general 
farmer. 

144. Uniformity. — Each community should produce horses 
uniform in type. As it is now, each district produces a number 
of types. For this reason, buyers in search of a particular type 
or breed of horse do not know where to find it, and buy, here 
and there throughout a wide territory and at a great outlay for 
traveling expenses, individual horses of the right type, until the 
lot has been gathered together. Such districts may sell large 
numbers of horses annually, but they are of nondescript type and 
character. These horses neither make a name for the district 
as a horse-breeding center nor attract buyers willing to pay ap- 
preciative prices. The individual farmer will do better to cast in 
his lot with the majority of his neighbors, and breed the same type 
as they are breeding, even though this type may not be the one 
that suits his fancy best or even the one that is best suited to the 
district. 

145. Soundness. — It is of great importance that the stallion 
be free from all forms of unsoundness or disease that are heredi- 
tary, transmissible, or communicable to the offspring. It is 
equally important that the mares bred to him should be sound 
in the same way, for not until both mare and stallion used for 
breeding purposes are free from unsoundness can we hope to raise 
the excellence of our horses to the degree possible as the result 
of intelligent breeding and development. 

146. Registration of farm animals. — Each of the important 
breeds of farm animals has a society which looks after its interests. 
This society publishes a book of record in which may be recorded 
the ancestors of each animal of the breed. This is spoken of as 
registration, and the record as the pedigree of the animal. When 



Care and Management of Horses 85 

thus recorded the animal is called a pure-bred. These books of 
record are known by various names according to the class of ani- 
mal registered. Thus among horses, it is called a studbook, 
among cattle and swine it is called a herdbook, and among sheep 
it is called a flockbook. 



GROOMING AND CARE 

Nothing contributes so much to the beauty and the luster of 
the coat as grooming. On arriving at the stable, the animal should 
be fed, unharnessed, given a thorough grooming, and blanketed. 
The legs should be given a thorough and rapid brushing. Time 
spent in cleaning and rubbing the horse in the evening after the 
day's work is done is worth much more than time thus spent in 
the morning. 

147. Care of the horse's teeth. — Occasionally a horse does 
not feed well, due to irregularities of his teeth. If the first, or 
milk teeth, are not looked after, they are likely to remain, causing 
the second, or permanent teeth, to grow in crooked. The young 
horse's mouth should be closely watched and the persistent milk 
teeth removed with forceps. Again, it must be remembered that 
the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and as the teeth 
are not perfectly opposed, a sharp edge is left unworn on the inside 
of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may 
cut the tongue or cheeks. This condition can readily be felt by 
the hand, and the sharp edges when found should be filed down 
by a guarded rasp ; otherwise the tongue and cheeks become sore, 
the food irritates them, and the horse will not feed well. 

148. Clipping. — This consists in cutting the hair over the entire 
surface of the horse's body. Several advantages are secured from 
clipping: it improves the appearance of the horse and makes his 
coat more easy to keep clean ; a clipped horse is less liable to take 
cold than a long-coated one because the evaporation is more rapid 
and the animal does not get so warm ; the natural process of shed- 



86 Animal Husbandry 

ding the hair is a draft on the vitality of the animal, the appetite 
is diminished, and the horse loses flesh. Clipping accomplishes in 
a very short time what nature requires much time to do. 

When horses cannot be protected from the cold and wet, either 
in the stable or outside of it, they should not be clipped in the fall. 
Animals exposed to the weather grow a long coat for their own 
protection. 

149. Bedding the horse. — A horse at hard work needs rest at 
night, and much more rest is possible when the animal is given a 
good liberal bed. The bedding should not be permitted to become 
foul, as this will not only lessen the comfort of the animal but 
promote disease as well. Of bedding materials, straw leads the 
list, but when high in price, it may be replaced by other materials, 
such as shavings from the planing mill, rejected parts of corn 
stalks, tan bark, leaves, and the like. Old straw is preferred to 
new, as it is dryer and more elastic. The more broken and bruised 
the straw, the less its bulk and elasticity and the greater the quan- 
tity that must be used. 

150. Blankets. — In cold climates the use of blankets is indis- 
pensable. The horse will prove more efficient and will endure 
much longer if reasonably protected against sudden changes in 
temperature, the cold rains, and heavy winds. 

151. Stable blanket. — The usefulness of a horse can be pro- 
longed and his efficiency increased by proper blanketing and groom- 
ing. On arriving at the stable very warm and sweating, the horse 
should not be blanketed until he has ceased to steam, nor should he 
be left in a draft. If blanketed at once, little opportunity is given 
for him to dry off, the blanket will become damp, and the hair 
remain so all night. In case the blanket is not used until the ani- 
mal has ceased to steam and is somewhat cooled, which will be in 
a quarter of an hour, the hair will be dry and smooth the following 
morning. Stable blankets may be dispensed with in the hot sum- 
mer months if the flies are excluded by screens or by some other 
means. If blankets are used at this time, they should be of light 



Care and Management of Horses 87 

material and kept clean. As soon as the nights begin to get cool, 
the blankets should be resumed, as an early use will arrest to a 
marked degree the growth of hair. This may obviate the necessity 
of clipping. In case the horse is clipped, he should be covered 
with an extra heavy blanket, or with two blankets, for a time. 

152. Outdoor blanket. — The use of the outdoor blanket is as 
important as the use of the stable blanket. If the horse is allowed 
to stand out doors, either for a short or for a long time, "he should 
be well blanketed. If one is going to stop but a short time, the 
temptation is strong not to blanket the animal. The horse cools 
off rapidly and may chill, so that it is best to blanket if only for a 
moment. In the spring when the weather is fair, one is likely to 
think that no ill will result from leaving the animal unblanketed. 
It is best at all times, on stopping the animal, to see that he is 
well protected. 

153. Care of the feet. — Because of the great importance of 
the foot, it should be carefully cared for throughout the active career 
of the horse. Each evening, after the horse returns from work as 
well as in the morning before he is sent out, the sole of the foot 
should be examined and all foreign materials removed. For this 
purpose a small hay hook with the point sharpened is excellent. 
It is very common to find foreign bodies, such as nails and stones, 
either driven into the wall or sole of the foot, or collected in the 
clefts along the frog, and it is very essential that they be removed 
if the hoof is to remain in healthy condition. 

Occasionally the hoofs have a tendency to dry out, thus becom- 
ing hard and brittle. Such hoofs should be oiled with some good 
oil, such as linseed or olive oil, or with hoof ointment, of which there 
are many kinds on the market. This will soften the wall of the 
hoof and make it less likely to crack or break. It often happens 
that a piece is worn or broken from the side of the hoof, which 
throws the weight of the body in such a way as to bring a strain 
upon the joints of the leg, causing deformity and disease. When 
such break occurs, the hoof should be leveled with a rasp. When 



88 Animal Husbandry 

horses are closely confined in the stable, the hoofs grow out long, 
and if not trimmed, will deform the limb and make traveling 
difficult. 

154. Growth of hoof. — The rate of growth of the hoof is of 
much importance, for we are often interested to know how long 
it will take a crack, such as quarter-crack, side-crack, or toe-crack, 
a cleft, or a calk to disappear. On the average, the hoof grows 
one-third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore 
hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod. While influenced to some 
extent by work or exercise, grooming, moisture, and food, the time 
required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground varies 
in proportion to the distance of the coronet to the ground. The 
toe, therefore, depending on its height, grows down in ten to thirteen 
months, the sides, six to eight, and the heel in three to five months. 

155. Shoeing. — The horse's hoof wears off faster than it 
grows out, and it becomes sore. In order to prevent the hoof from 
wearing too rapidly the feet are shod. While there are many 
reasons for applying shoes, the most important are as follows: — 

First, to prevent wearing away of the hoof in order that it may 
not get sore. Horses show need of shoeing first in the fore feet, 
and in some parts of the country only the fore feet are shod. For 
this purpose the light shoe is preferred. Second, to prevent slip- 
ping on ice or mud. For this purpose, when the work is hard, 
heavy shoes with large calks are best, but for easy work they may 
be lighter. Third, horses are shod to modify their action. 

Of the many things to be considered in fitting a shoe perhaps the 
most important is to keep the foot perfectly level, thus preventing 
undue weight being thrown on one side, and other attendant in- 
juries. The frog should be left in its natural size and shape to 
serve as a cushion for the foot. Make the foot normal. Then 
make the shoe fit the foot. In fitting a shoe, nothing will aid one 
as much as a careful examination of the wear of the old shoe. The 
shoe should be- fitted cold or not so hot as to burn the sole when 
placed against it in fitting. In nailing the shoe to the foot, the 



Care and Management of Horses 89 

nail holes should not be too near the edge of the sole, for in such 
case it is necessary to drive the nails too far up into the wall to 
make them hold. On the other hand, the nail holes should be well 
back, the nails small in size, and when driven, should be brought 
out well down on the hoof. If driven high, when the shoes are 
reset, or the animal reshod, the former nail holes are near the edge 
and serve to weaken the hoofs and interfere with driving the new 
nails. After driving the nails, they are to be clinched in a small 
groove fitted for that purpose. Smooth with rasp, but never rasp 
the outside of the hoof as it will remove the natural protective 
covering. This natural covering should not be removed, as the 
hoof will absorb water in the wet season and dry out much more 
rapidly in the dry season. 

156. Treating sick horses. — Horses that are ailing should re- 
ceive much care. In many cases good care is to be preferred to 
the use of medicine. In other cases rest is to be preferred to both. 
The aim is to hasten recovery from the ill effects of the ailment, 
and to be most successful one must understand the horse thoroughly 
and be able to supply his every need. He must be careful, pains- 
taking, and patient. The first thing to be done is to look for the 
cause of the trouble, and if possible, to remove it. If the disease 
is contagious, the ailing animal should be put away from other 
animals equally susceptible to the disease. Whether the disease 
is contagious or not, the quarters should be comfortable. Note 
carefully the surroundings of the animal, the work it has been 
doing, the exercise, general care, food, water, and the source of 
infection if the disease is contagious. 

157. Feeding sick horses. — The food should receive much at- 
tention. When the horse can eat, a small quantity of easily 
digestible and nutritious food should be given. The food should 
not contain much bulk and should be rather laxative, as sickness 
often brings constipation. It should be as attractive as possible, 
as the appetite is usually poor and sometimes lacking. When it 
can be prevented, medicine should not be put in the food or water, 



90 Animal Husbandry 

unless tasteless and odorless, as the horse is likely to refuse the food 
when it is important that he should have it. Natural foods, such 
as fresh grass, roots, bran mash, and milk, are to be preferred to 
prepared foods, though the use of patent stock foods may prove 
beneficial in certain minor ailments, when a tonic is valuable. The 
feed boxes should be kept clean, and if any food is left, it should 
be removed and not left until the next meal. 

In certain ailments, it is necessary to protect the horse against 
the cold or from drafts. This can be done by the use of blankets. 
To protect the limbs, bandages may be applied. The bandage 
should be made from strips of woolen cloth about three inches wide 
and five to eight feet long. Make it into a neat roll, then apply 
by beginning at the lower or smaller part of the limb and wind up- 
wards. 

TEAINING THE COLT 

The usefulness of the horse will depend much on his cour- 
age and fearlessness, and it is to promote these that the colt 
should become familiar with man at as early an age as possible. 
A colt should never be frightened. Too many persons thought- 
lessly try to make the young colt show off by doing something to 
startle it, by running at it, throwing sticks, " shooing " it, and the 
like. This should never be done if a reliable animal is to be de- 
veloped. 

158. Handling the colt. — The foal should be taught very early 
the uses of the halter ; first to lead, then to drive. But even before 
haltering the youngster may be taught to " stand over," to have 
his foot raised, to back, and the like. In handling the colt be 
careful about the ears, the back of the fore legs, and the flanks, as 
these are often very sensitive. Catch the colt by putting one hand 
under the neck and the other under the hams or around the but- 
tocks (Fig. 39). Never catch a colt around the neck only — if 
this is done, the colt will go backwards and perhaps fall — but 
instead catch him around both ends, as described; then if he 



Care and Management of Horses 



91 



attempts to go forward, press back with the hand under his neck, 
and if he attempts to go backwards, press forward with the hand 
that is around the buttocks. Colts caught in this way will let 




Fig. 39. — Catching foal the first time. 

one walk up to them, whereas if they are caught around the neck, 
there may be difficulty in coming near them. 

159. Training to the halter. — When ready to halter the foal, 
choose a strong, well-fitting halter and not a new one that smells 
of a lot of things that are new to the colt, but one that has recently 
been used. Care should be taken not to pull heavily on the nose- 
band at any time. Occasionally deformed face lines and necks 
are caused in this way. It is not necessary to drag a colt by the 
halter in order to suggest to him that his business is to follow. As 



92 



Animal Husbandry 



a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder a colt 
is pulled, the harder he holds back. If, on the contrary, he is 
coaxed along the accustomed route, as to the water trough and 
back, he will soon follow promptly. If he resents, however, other 
means must be tried. Secure a small rope, the size of a light clothes 




Fig. 40. — Teaching foal to lead. 

line, about ten feet long, tie a noose or fasten a ring on one end, 
place this gently over the colt's back just in front of the hips with 
the noose or ring on the under side of the body, so that when the 
other end of the rope is run through the noose, the rope can be 
closely drawn around the flanks ; pass the rope along under the 
body, then between the fore legs, then up through the ring in the 
halter. Hold the halter strap in one hand, the light rope in the 
other, pull gently in the halter strap, and as the colt begins to 
shake his head give the light rope a sharp pull and the colt will 



Care and Management of Horses 93 

immediately step forward. Do not be in a hurry, but give the 
colt time to get used to the lesson. Soon he will follow wherever 
you lead (Fig. 40). 

160. Training to drive with lines. — After the colt understands 
the uses of the halter and will lead, he may be taught to.be driven 
with lines. To do this successfully a surcingle properly adjusted is 
required. The surcingle must be provided with loops or rings 
on each side, placed well below the center of the body, the lines 
passed through these and fastened to the rings on either side of 
the halter; never use a bit in the mouth of a very young colt. 
Now the lines will pass the hind quarters low down, and thus pre- 
vent the colt from turning with his head towards the trainer. It is 
very important to keep the reins low in turning to make the guiding 
process easy. After a little, as the colt becomes accustomed to be- 
ing driven, he can be touched up with the lines, guided to the right or 
left, but he should be stopped often to assure him he is doing well. 

161. Training to the uses of the bit. — It is best perhaps to train 
the horse to the uses of the bit when he is about two years of age. 
The manner in which the horse is educated to know and mind the 
bit will go far towards determining his usefulness. Inasmuch as 
the conveyance of the master's desire to the horse's mind for execu- 
tion is through the hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can 
be made and none should be attempted until this means of com- 
munication has been well established. 

162. Importance of a good mouth. — No factor contributes so 
much to the pleasure, comfort, and safety of either rider or driver 
as a responsive mouth in a horse — one that always obeys promptly 
the slightest instruction from the master. A good mouth to a 
large extent is natural to the horse. Tender and bad mouths 
usually result from improper handling. Bad mouths are very 
aggravating and often the cause of many other imperfections — 
tongue lolling, crossing the jaws, hobbling, irregular and unsteady 
gaits, and the like — ■ many of which when well established are very 
difficult to overcome. 



94 Animal Husbandry 

163. Bitting the colt. — The young animal can usually be made 
familiar with the uses of the bit by the application of the bitting 
harness. This harness consists of an open bridle with a large 
smooth bit and check-rein, a surcingle and crupper, and two side- 
lines running from the bit to buckles on either side of the surcingle 
(Fig. 41). The adjustment of the bridle is important. The length 




Fig. 41. — Bitting harness used to familiarize the horse with the bit. 

of the head-stall must be so adjusted as to bring the bit in mild 
contact with the bars of the mouth. With the bitting harness 
properly adjusted, turn the colt into the familiar open paddock 
to get used to having the bit in his mouth. The check- and side- 
reins should be left slack at first. Gradually from day to day the 
reins should be shortened, care being taken that they are never 
made so short as to place the head in an uncomfortable position, 
or draw the bit so tightly as to make the corners of the mouth 
sore. The colt should be subjected to the use of this apparatus 



Care and Management of Horses 95 

for a few hours each day for perhaps a week or less, depending on 
the individual. Real lines may now be substituted for the side- 
reins and the colt driven until he knows how to guide this way 
and that ; to stop at the word "whoa," and to step forward at the 
command "get up." Train the colt to stand absolutely still when 
being harnessed, saddled, or when it is desired that he should stand. 
A horse that is continually stepping about while one is working 
with him is but half trained at best. 

164. Harnessing the colt. — After the colt has become familiar 
with the bitting apparatus and has learned to obey simple com- 
mands he may be harnessed. Do not use new harness, smelling 
of things unfamiliar, but one that has been in constant use, pref- 
erably by a horse that the colt knows. After being driven with 
the bitting apparatus for a time and the colt is rather tired, put 
him in his stall, bring the collar to him, let him smell of it if he 
likes, then put it right on as if he were an old horse. Now get 
the harness, walk up to him, and lift it gently over his back. Do 
not stand off and throw the harness over his back, for the loose 
straps hitting his back and abdomen will be resented, and he may 
kick. Walk behind him, put the crupper strap on, then step to 
the side and fasten the bands. 

The harness should be of good quality and in good repair ; if a 
part breaks, there may be trouble and the colt ruined for all time. 
See to it that it fits perfectly. The colt's shoulders are likely to 
be tender and easily abraded, and we must see that the collar fits 
him well. A breast-collar is admissible when the load is light. 
The saddle and the crupper also need careful attention. Care 
should be taken to have them fit, neither too loose nor too tight, 
and then to keep them clean lest they abrade the back or tail 
and produce a vicious horse. 

165. Hitching double. — With the harness properly adjusted, 
the colt is ready to be hitched to a vehicle. Get a well-trained, 
gentle, but active horse if the colt is active, for it is a mistake to 
hitch a quick, active colt with a slow, lazy horse. The vehicle 



96 



Animal Husbandry 



to which they are attached should be provided with a good brake. 
The colt should be attached to the " off side " and the team be 
driven at first in a closed field till the colt learns what is wanted of 
him. When hitching the colt double for the first few times, it is 
well to keep a pair of single lines on the colt's bridle which can be 
handled by an assistant. 

166. Hitching single. — When the colt is desired for single 
use, it is often advisable to train him to go single from the first. 




Fig. 42. — Acquainting the horse with the training-cart. 

This may be done after he has become familiar with the bit, har- 
ness, and use of the lines. When training the colt to go single, a 
training-cart — one with long shafts, substantially constructed, 
and the seat so arranged that the driver can get off and on quickly 
— should be employed. The shafts should be twelve or fourteen 
feet long, with provision at the ends for the attachment of a strap 
across from point to point to prevent the colt in rearing from 
throwing his front leg over the end of the shaft. At first a kick- 
strap attached to each shaft and passed over the colt's rump 
should be used, at least till the colt is accustomed to the shafts. 
When the colt is first hitched, an assistant should hold him until 



Care and Management of Horses 97 

the driver is ready, then he should be allowed to go. As soon as 
he has become familiar with the vehicle he should be compelled to 
stand still until he is wanted to start (Fig. 42). 



HARNESS AND HARNESSING 

In harnessing the horse, much care should be exercised in 
properly adjusting the various parts of the harness. Properly 
fitted harness adds much to the efficiency and comfort of the horse. 
This is well emphasized by the sore mouth, shoulders, neck, back, 
and tail produced by poorly fitted harness. The tension o*n these 
parts is rather great, and as they are very tender they are the 
places likely first to show abrasion. Sores thus produced give 
the horse much pain and are likely to become a cause of viciousness. 
Sore mouth thus often provokes a horse to run away; sore 
shoulders and neck often provoke balking; and sore tail often 
provokes kicking. Since the efficiency and comfort of the horse 
depend so largely on the adjustment of the bit, lines, collar, saddle, 
and crupper, it seems desirable to discuss each of these separately. 

167. The bridle. — When one recalls the extreme tenderness 
of the mouth, the cruel manner in which it is often bitted, the 
irritation from the sores, he can understand why a horse may lag 
behind till the parts become numbed, then begin to pull, holding 
the head to one side, going with mouth open, lolling the tongue, 
slobbering, tossing the head, crossing the jaws, and in many other 
ways showing evidence of the discomfort he is suffering. 

168. The bit. — Bits of many types have been devised to meet 
the various and peculiar habits of horses, most of which have been 
designed to punish the horse and irritate the sensitive parts. 
With the punishment of the whip at the rear and a harsh and 
severe bit at the front the horse is between two goads, and if he 
does not balk, rear, plunge, or run away, he is exceptional. 

A good-sized straight bit covered with leather or rubber, if the 
mouth is tender, cannot be improved on in most cases. One 

H 



98 Animal Husbandry 

must be careful to get a bit of the proper length for the horse's 
mouth. Many bits are too long and are pulled out of adjust- 
ment in the mouth, so that the pressure on either side is not equal. 
The bit must be of the correct length for the particular animal, 
and properly adjusted. 

Some horses work better with the jointed or snaffle bit. It 
gives more room for the tongue, and the pressure is more evenly 
distributed on the jaws than with the straight bit. Severe bits, 
of which there are many in the market, and which are intended 
for punishment, should never be used unless it is absolutely 
necessary. 

In the training and driving of high-acting horses, the curb-bit 
may be used. A horse properly bitted with this shows himself 
to better advantage than with any other kind of bit. The curb- 
bit should be used only by those who are familiar with it, as it 
may become an instrument of torture in the hands of the inex- 
perienced. 

The choice of the proper bit for each horse can be determined 
only by trial, and if several changes are necessary, one should not 
be discouraged. However, when it has been determined which 
bit best serves the purpose, no further change should be made. 
After becoming used to a certain kind of bit a horse does not take 
kindly to a change. It makes him uncomfortable and may inter- 
fere with his action. 

169. The check-rein. — The check-rein should be properly 
adjusted. In common practice there are two methods of check- 
ing the horse's head — by means of the side-rein and by the over- 
check rein. The former is used more often on work horses, the 
latter on driving horses. The side-rein is used with and without 
check hooks at the throat-latch. This rein is not so effective as 
the over-check rein in compelling the animal to hold his head up, 
but it is much more comfortable to the horse and enables him to 
handle himself more efficiently. Horses checked with the side- 
rein are not so likely to stumble as those with the over-check rein, 



Care and Management of Horses 99 

and they will pull a much heavier load. This is because they have 
more liberty with the head, are able to see the ground immediately 
in front, and to lower the head and thus throw more power into 
the collar. 

The over-check rein was devised for trotting horses, but has 
become so popular that it is used almost exclusively for driving 
horses. It holds the horse's head in such position that he is un- 
able to see the ground immediately in front of him, and he is 
therefore very likely to stumble. It also holds the head in such a 
way that he cannot pull efficiently. This is particularly true in 
ascending a steep grade. Again, it holds the head and neck in 
such an unnatural position that the neck soon becomes numbed, 
and the horse is seen to toss his head from side to side and to 
take other characteristic attitudes in search of relief. 

The horse should always be reined mildly. Without the rein 
he is likely to become careless in his habits, shambling in his gait, 
and to yield to the temptation to eat grass when standing. When 
the animal lowers his head and neck, the lines, collar, and breast- 
harness slip down and he is likely to become tangled in the harness 
and may get into difficulty. 

170. Fitting the collar. — The service of the horse is largely 
accomplished by the shoulders, and it is of the utmost importance 
that the collar fit the neck and shoulders perfectly. Poorly fitted 
collars cause the horse much pain, result in sore necks and shoulders, 
and are a common cause of viciousness and bad habits. Be- 
cause of the extreme importance of having a well-fitting collar, 
many makes have been put on the market, such as the leather, 
the sweeny, the half sweeny, the pneumatic, the steel, and the 
humane, each asserting superiority over the others (Fig. 43). 
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. 

Fitting the collar is a rather difficult task. It is so firm and 
stiff that usually it is impossible to buckle the harness tight enough 
to bring it to the shape of the animal's neck, and the shoulders 
are therefore adjusted to the collar rather than the collar to the 



100 



Animal Husbandry 



shoulders, with sore shoulders as the result. To avoid this sore- 
ness, it is necessary that the stiff collar be adjusted to the shoulders 
of the horse for which it is intended. 

Every horse should have his own collar. It should fit close to 
the neck along its entire width and should never be tight in some 
places and loose in others. The hame-straps should be properly 
adjusted at top and bottom to suit the shape of the horse's neck. 
Be sure at all times that the lower hame-strap is buckled as tightly 
as the thickness of the neck will permit. Occasionally the careless 




Fig. 43. — Types of collars : (1) leather ; (2) half sweeney : (3) steel ; (4) pneumatic ; 

(5) humane. 



driver fails to buckle the hames tightly, and when the horse is 
backed, the hames slip off the collar. 

171. Breast harness. — For light driving, breast harness is 
permissible and is to be preferred for such light rigs as runabouts 
and buggies. In the adjustment of breast harness, care should 
be taken that the neck strap is not so long as to let the breast 
harness drop and interfere with the action of the fore limbs. On 
the other hand, the neck strap should not be so short as to draw 
the breast harness up and choke the animal. The breast harness 
is intended for light work only, and if the load is heavy, the 
horse may choke. This is particularly true in ascending a 
steep grade. 

172. Fitting the back-strap and crupper. — Perhaps next in 
importance to the bit and collar is the crupper. If the back- 



Care and Management of Horses 101 

strap or the check-rein is too short and the crupper is drawn too 
tight against the tail, it is likely to cause soreness ; since this is a 
very tender part, it may lessen the reliability of the horse. A 
horse with a sore tail is hard to manage. At any time he may get 
his tail over the line, become excited through fear that the abraded 
part will be injured, clamp his tail down on the line, and be difficult 
to control. 

173. Fly-nets. — The use of fly-nets often brings much comfort 
to working animals. Such horses should be provided with throat- 
latch cloths when the bot-flies are present, as these pests are very 
annoying, and the animals in fighting them will often become 
excited, with a consequent lessening of their usefulness. Whether 
to use fly-nets or fly-blankets may depend on conditions. The 
use of the fly-blanket is not advised by many persons, but there 
are conditions in which it proves very desirable, particularly on 
horses whose color is such as to fade on being exposed to the direct 
rays of the sun. The fly-blanket, while very efficient in retaining 
the color and keeping out the flies, is not so presentable and is 
much warmer than the open net. Leather fly-nets are the most 
presentable and the most desired by horsemen. But fly-nets 
and fly-blankets are rather annoying to the teamster and are more 
or less expensive, for which reasons they are often discarded en- 
tirely. 

174. Caring for harness. — The proper care of the harness 
should receive much consideration, as care will increase the length 
of its usefulness and lessen the liability of its injuring the animal. 
It is very important that the bearing parts be kept scrupulously 
clean at all times. This applies particularly to the parts in con- 
stant contact with the animal, as the collar, saddle, and crupper. 
It is not possible to prevent sore shoulders, sore back, and sore 
tail if these parts are permitted to become dirty, which they will, 
because of the sweat and dandruff. They must be carefully 
watched and frequently cleaned. 



102 Animal Husbandry 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many horses are there in the world ? What per cent of these 
are in the United States ? How many mules are there and what per cent 
are in the United States ? How many horses are in your state ? In your 
county? Name the ten leading horse-breeding states. The leading 
mule-breeding states. Name the ten leading horse markets. The lead- 
ing mule markets. 

2. Why is the demand for draft horses increasing while the demand 
for driving horses is decreasing ? 

3. What is meant by heredity, transmission, and inheritance ? What 
is the cause of variation? What is the basis of improvement in horse 
breeding ? What is meant by selection ? What is the unit of selection ? 
What is the value of a pedigree and individual merit in selection ? What 
is meant by Mendel's Law ? 

4. Why should the horse be groomed in the evening after the day's 
work is done rather than in the morning before going to work, as is the 
custom ? 

5. Why should the work horse with a long, thick coat of hair be clipped ? 
Which has the finer coat, a clipped or an undipped horse ? How do the 
stable and the outdoor blankets affect the hair ? 

6. Why should the colt's hoof be rasped and leveled up frequently ? 
Why should the young hoof not be pared with a knife ? What is the func- 
tion of the frog ? Should a shoe be fitted to the hoof when hot ? 

7. Name the more common diseases of horses and give brief symp- 
toms of each. 

8. Why should the colt be trained when young ? Can a horse reason ? 
Has the colt a good memory ? How are horses taught to obey commands ? 
How many commands should the average horse be taught ? What is the 
most common cause of viciousness among horses? How can vicious 
habits be overcome ? 

9. How many kinds of bridle-bits are you familiar with? When 
should a severe bit be used ? How many kinds of collars are you familiar 
with? Which kinds give best results? 

10. Give a method of familiarizing an untrained horse with pressure 
caused by the harness. What parts of the horse are most sensitive to such 
pressure ? 



PART TWO — CATTLE 




Fig. 44. — Points of the dairy cow. 



1. 


Muzzle. 


10. 


Shoulder. 


20. 


Pin bones. 


2. 


Jaw. 


11. 


Fore legs. 


21. 


Tail. 


3. 


Face. 


13. 


Chest. 


22. 


Thigh. 


4. 


Forehead. 


14. 


Back. 


23. 


Hind legs. 


5. 


Eye. 


15. 


Ribs. 


24. 


Udder. 


6. 


Ear. 


16. 


Barrel. 


25. 


Teats. 


7. 


Throat, 


17. 


Loin. 


26. 


Milk wells. 


8. 


Neck. 


18. 


Hips. 


27. 


Milk veins 


9. 


Withers. 


19. 


Rump. 










104 



CHAPTER VI 

BREEDS OF CATTLE 

There are two distinct types of cattle : first, the dairy type, 
adapted to the production of milk; and second, the beef type, 
employed for the production of beef. These types are controlled 
by the demands made on the body of the animal. For example, 
in milk production the udder is perhaps as important an organ as 
any, whereas in beef production it is needed only to sustain the 
young. Again, in the case of beef production it is very important 
that the animal take on flesh and that the body be plump and full, 
whereas in the production of milk this would be considered an 
objection, as the food should go to the production of milk and not 
to fat. These two types are of necessity widely different and one 
can no more have maximum milk production and maximum beef 
production in the same cow than he can have maximum speed 
and maximum force in the same horse. 

175. The dairy type. — When we reflect upon the purpose for 
which dairy cows are kept, the type becomes apparent. They 
are useful for the milk they can secrete, and not for the flesh of 
their bodies ; and as the food goes to produce milk and not fat, 
the body will be spare and not fleshy. The secretion of milk 
takes place in the udder and allied organs ; therefore, the rear 
development will be large. Furthermore, we cannot have large 
production without a large factory ; thus* a large secretion of milk 
calls for a large digestive tract, which adds to the rear develop- 
ment (Fig. 44). 

In general appearance, the form of the dairy cow resembles 
that of a triple-wedge. Viewed from the side, she shows greater 

105 



106 



Animal Husbandry 







Fig. 45. — Points of the beef cow. 



1. Muzzle. 


12. Dewlap. 


23. Hind flank 


2. Eye. 


13. Arm. 


25. Rump. 


3. Face. 


14. Shin. 


26. Tail-head. 


4. Forehead. 


15. Fore legs. 


27. Pin bones. 


5. Ear. 


16. Chest. 


28. Thigh. 


6. Neck. 


17. Fore flank. 


29. Twist. 


7. Shoulder vein. 


18. Crops. 


30. Hock. 


8. Shoulder. 


19. Ribs. 


31. Shank. 


9. Brisket. 


20. Back. 


32. Tail. 


10. Jaw. 


21. Loin. 




11. Breast. 


22. Hip. 





Breeds of Cattle 107 

depth of body behind than in front. Viewed from the rear and 
top, she gradually widens from the chest to the hips. Viewed 
from the front and top, she gradually widens from the withers 
backward and downward to the abdomen. While this is the 
desired form and many superior cows possess it, yet exceptions 
occur, and many heavy milkers are not associated with this form. 
Fleshiness, however, is distinctly objectionable in the milking 
cow. 

176. The beef type. — In the beef type, the food goes to the 
production of flesh ; hence a tendency to fatten is desirable. The 
quality of the flesh in different parts of the body varies widely. 
In the meat-market, flesh forming certain parts of the body is 
worth many times that from other parts. We demand therefore 
in the beef type, not only an animal with a tendency to take on 
fat, but this tendency must be accelerated in the region of the 
valuable cuts of meat. 

In general appearance, the form of the beef type resembles 
that of a brick set on edge. Viewed from the side, the top and 
bottom lines are parallel. There is no wedge shape; the animal 
is as deep in front as behind. Viewed from the rear and top, the 
withers and chest present an appearance almost as wide as the 
hip and rump. The animal is compact and broad of back from 
shoulders to hips. Cattle of the beef type are often referred to 
as " blocky," indicating compactness and squareness of form 
(Fig. 45). 

There are several breeds belonging to each of these types, some 
of which are better suited to perform their function than others. 
The dairy breeds that are the more perfectly adapted to milk 
production are spoken of as the major dairy breeds, while those 
that are not so well suited to milk production are called the minor 
dairy breeds. In like manner, we have the major and minor 
beef breeds, the former signifying those breeds of beef cattle that 
are the better adapted to the production of beef. 



108 



Animal Husbandry 



THE MAJOR BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 

The Name, Native Home, Condition of Horns, Approximate Weight, 
and Common Color of Each of the Major Dairy Breeds 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Horns 


Weight, 
Pounds 


Color 


Jerseys . . . 
Holstein-Friesian 
Guernseys . . . 
Ayrshires . . . 


Jersey Islands 
Holland 

Guernsey Islands 
Scotland 


Horns 
Horns 
Horns 
Horns 


800-1200 
1400-2000 
1000-1500 
1000-1400 


Fawnlike 
Black and white 
Yellow fawn 
Red, white 



177. Jersey dairy cattle. — The Island of Jersey is one of a 
group known as the Channel Islands, situated in the English 
Channel, a few miles off the coast of France, but belonging to 
Great Britain. The principal islands of the' group are Jersey, 
the largest, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. The climate is mild 
and balmy. The exact origin of the cattle on the Island of Jersey 
is uncertain. Because of the color, however, it has been assumed 
that they descended from stock on the neighboring section of 
France, particularly Normandy and Brittany. The fawn color 
has been attributed to the cattle of Normandy, while the blacker 
color has been credited to the Brittany cattle. At an early date, 
however, steps were taken to keep the breed pure by preventing 
outside cattle coming into the Island. In 1763, an act was passed, 
which has since been rigidly enforced, and supplemented by further 
acts, prohibiting the landing of cattle on the Island except for 
the purpose of slaughter. Even before the enactment of laws, 
the purity of the cattle was maintained by the persistency with 
which the people of the Island cling to their own breed. There 
are about 40,000 cattle on the Island. 

In 1833 the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society 
was organized, with the purpose of improving the cattle. In 
1834 the society originated a score-card for Jerseys; in 1836 it 



Breeds of Cattle 



109 



recommended that one superior breeding animal be kept in each 
parish ; and in 1838 it enacted several rules which were useful in 
the development of the Jersey breed. 

178. Inspection of Jersey cattle. — On the Island of Jersey 
the high standing of the breed is preserved by a system of inspec- 



V^ 




Fig. 46. — The Jersey cow "Tormentor's Lass." Dairy type. 



tion which is made a conditional precedent to registration. The 
following are the necessary conditions to registration : — 

(1) Every animal must be inspected by competent judges, and 
if it is considered fit, it obtains a qualification, namely, com- 
mended or highly commended. 

(2) Every bull submitted for qualification must be accompanied 
by his dam, in order that the merits of the latter may be taken 
into consideration in awarding a commendation to the former. 

(3) No heifer, although she may be descended from registered 



110 



Animal Husbandry 



parents, can be entered in the herdbook until she has a calf, and if 
at the time of her examination, she is a poor milker, she receives 
no commendation. 

179. Description of Jersey cattle. — This breed is one of the 
smallest of the dairy breeds. While the color is described as fawn- 
like, it is quite variable in its shade, being yellow, red, gray, brown 
or silver fawn. The general conformation of the Jersey is low 
and muscular. The head is small, short, lean and dish-faced. 
The horns are crumpled or incurved, small, waxy, and often black- 
tipped. The ears are small, delicate and yellow-colored within. 
The neck is fine and short. The body is well rounded, large and 
deep. The tail is fine and long. The skin secretions are usually 
yellow ; and as seen in the ear, at the tip of the tail, and about 
the udder, indicate the richness of the milk. The udder is sym- 
metrical, extending up well behind, and well forward, and while 
it is usually very mellow and milks out well, it is often criticised 
for its small size, as well as for small teats. The milk veins are 
highly developed, tortuous or winding in form, passing well for- 
ward and entering the abdomen through milk wells (Fig. 46). 

10 Leading Yearly Records among Jersey Cows, April 1, 1913 



Name op Cow 


Milk 


Butter-Fat 


85% Butter 


Lb. 


Oz. 


Lb. 


Oz. 


Lb. 


Oz. 


Jacoba Irene 

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm . . 
Lass 38th of the Hood Farm . 
Olga 4th' s Pride . . . . . 
Adelaide of Beechlands . 
Rosaire's Olga 4th's Pride . . 

Warder's Lady 

Pearly Exile of St. Lambert 

St. Mawes Poppy 

Financial Countess .... 


17253 
15099 
15284 
16275 
15572 
14104 
14820 
12345 
12934 
13248 


3.2 

6.0 

0.0 

13.2 

1.6 

13.6 

11.0 

8.0 

4.8 

2.4 


952 

931 
890 
851 
849 
836 
819 
816 
800 
795 


15.4 
15.5 

5.6 
11.7 

9.9 
15.8 
15.0 

1.2 
13.5 

4.6 


1121 

1096 

1047 

1002 

999 

984 

964 

960 

942 

935 


2.1 

6.9 

7.5 

0.6 

8.9 

11.0 

10.0 

1.0 

2.7 

10.0 



Breeds of Cattle 111 

180. Jersey milk and butter-fat records. — As a butter-fat 
producer, this breed is justly famous. Jersey milk holds first 
place for the production of superior butter, as well as for the per- 
centage of butter-fat contained, although the flow or yield of milk 
is not so great as in some of the larger dairy breeds. As early as 
the seventies, records were kept of the milk and butter pro- 
duced, and at the present time, the American Jersey Cattle 
Club is giving attention to the testing of cows for milk and 
butter-fat yield. These results are recorded in the Register 
of Merit. 

181. Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle. — This breed of dairy 
cattle originated with the ancient Friesland people, who occupied 
the shores of the North Sea, between the river Ems and the Rhine. 
The Friesians were the oldest inhabitants of Holland, and were 
known as herdsmen, hunters, and fishermen. It is stated that for 
over a thousand years the cattle of Friesland have been famous 
for the production of milk, butter, and cheese. Early writings 
refer to the Dutch cattle as being large and great milk producers. 
They were popular and became widespread, entering Oldenberg 
and Holstein in Germany, Denmark, Belgium, France, Russia, 
and other countries. In North Holland, at the present time, there 
are some 80,000 head of pure-bred cattle of this breed and in Fries- 
land at least 125,000. 

The breed name, Holstein-Friesian, is of American origin, there 
being no breed of that name in Europe. Holstein is a small 
province in Germany between the Baltic and North Seas, about a 
hundred miles east of Friesland, which is in Holland. Formerly 
Friesland cattle were brought to America under the name Dutch 
Friesian, and cattle from Holstein under the name Holstein, being 
sold as different breeds and championed by different breeding 
associations, each breed having a separate herdbook. These two 
breeds, however, were essentially the same, having a similar origin, 
and are the same in all important characteristics. In order to 
promote the interests of the two breeds, the breeders and importers 



112 



Animal Husbandry 



finally came together and united their interests, agreeing to call 
the breed, Holstein-Friesian. 

182. Description of Holstein-Friesian cattle. — This breed is 
one of the largest of the dairy breeds. While the color is de- 
scribed as black and white, the proportion of black to white varies 




Fig. 47. — The Holstein-Friesian cow " Colantha 4th's Johanna." Dairy type. 

greatly. In America at the present time considerable white 
with black patches is the popular color, although very excellent 
animals will be observed in which black predominates. In Hol- 
land, red and white is occasionally seen, while in America, red 
bars an animal from being recorded in the herdbook. The head is 
lean and tends to be somewhat long, with straight nose or face. 
The horns should be short, tapering gradually, and curved for- 
ward and inward. A white horn with a black tip is preferred. 
The neck is moderately long and slender in the female and large 
and arched in the male. The shoulders are prominent, with withers 



Breeds of Cattle 



113 



moderately thick. The body is large with long, well-sprung ribs 
of great length, thus giving constitution and digestive capacity. 
The hips are prominent with long rump and thin thighs. The 
udder is very large and well proportioned, extending up well be- 
hind and well forward, although, with increasing years, it often 
becomes somewhat pendant. The teats are of good size and the 
milk veins large, but not so tortuous as in the Jersey (Fig. 47). 

183. Holstein-Friesian milk and butter-fat records. — As a 
milk producer this breed is justly famous. Following the lead 
of the Jersey breeders, the Holstein-Friesian breeders early began 
to keep data on the amount of milk and butter produced, and 
wonderful milk records have been reported. While the Jersey is 
especially noted for the richness of its milk, the Holstein-Friesian 
is equally as well noted for its large milk flow. These results are 
reported in the Advanced Register. 

10 Leading Yearly Records among Holstein-Friesian Cows, April 1, 

1913 



Name of Cow 






Milk, 
Pounds 


Butter-Fat, 
Pounds 


85 % Butter, 
Pounds 


Banostine Belle DeKol . 
Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d 
High-lawn Hartog DeKol 
Colantha 4th's Johanna . 
Daisy Grace DeKol . 
Creamelle Vale .... 
Aralia DeKol .... 






27404.4 
25318.0 
25592.5 
27432.5 
27718.3 
29591.4 
28090.0 
21966.3 
22811.8 
28436.1 


1058.34 
1017.28 
998.34 
998.26 
962.80 
924.68 
913.86 
888.11 
883.07 
880.24 


1245.1 
1196.8 
1174.8 
1174.4 
1132.7 
1087.8 
1075.1 


Caroline Paul Parthenea 
Belle Netherland Johanna 
Woodcrest Meta Vernon De 


Ko 


1 '. 


1044.8 
1038.9 
1035.5 



184. Guernsey dairy cattle. — This breed was developed on 
the Islands of Guernsey and Alderney, the climate being similar 
to that of Jersey Island. The Guernsey cattle are supposed 
to have the same French ancestry as the Jerseys. It is assumed 



114 



Animal Husbandry 



that the red color and the size are derived from the use of cattle 
from Normandy and the darker colors from Brittany cattle, taken 
to the island in very early times. In the latter part of the eight- 
eenth century, however, a law was passed forbidding the bringing 




Fig. 48. — The Guernsey cow " Dolly Dimple." Dairy type. 



of cattle to the islands except for immediate slaughter. The 
Royal Guernsey Agricultural and Horticultural Society is largely re- 
sponsible for the improvement of the breed. Annual exhibitions are 
held, in which there is strong competition, as prizes are awarded ac- 
cording to merit. As compared with the Island of Jersey, Guernsey 
is rather small and maintains only about 5000 head of cattle. 

185. Description of Guernsey cattle. — In size this breed 
ranks as medium. The color is either yellow, brown, or reddish 
fawn, with white markings or with white on the limbs and under 



Breeds of Cattle 



115 



part of the body. The head is of medium size, with muzzle of 
buff or flesh color. The horns are white or amber colored, though 
often colored a deep yellow. They are of medium length, curving 
gracefully around inward and slightly upward. The neck is 
short and fine; the shoulders inclined to be angular; the ribs 
well-sprung and long, giving good capacity ; and the rump long 
and level. The udder is large, extending up well behind, and 
showing more fore-udder development and larger teats than does 
the Jersey. The milk veins are large, crooked and long, entering 
the abdomen through large wells. Guernsey breeders lay special 
emphasis on a rich, yellow secretion of the skin, especially as seen 
in the ear, tip of tail, and about the udder (Fig. 48) . 

186. Guernsey milk and butter-fat records. — The cows of 
this breed are noted for being retentive milkers, perhaps holding 
their flow better than any other breed, a good illustration of which 
is seen in the case of Spotswood Daisy Pearl, giving 24,675 pounds 
of milk and 1225.6 of fat in fifteen months. 



10 Leading Yearly Records among Guernsey Cows, April 1, 1913 



Name of Cow 


Milk, 
Pounds 


Butter-fat, 
Pounds 


85% Butter, 
Pounds 


Spotswood Daisy Pearl . 
Dairy Maid of Pinehurst 
Dolly Dimple .... 






18608.2 
17285.3 
18458.8 
14686.8 
14920.8 
16729.3 
17297.5 
16813.1 
12608.8 
15078.8 


957.38 
910.67 
906.89 
898.82 
857.15 
845.41 
836.21 
780.66 
774.16 
773.59 


1126.3 
1071.4 
1066.9 


Imp. Beauty of Park Farm 
Yeksa Sunbeam . . . 
Murne Cowan .... 






1057.4 

1008.4 

994.6 


Dolly Bloom .... 






983.7 


Glenanaar of the Glen 
Imp. Princess of the Blicqs 
Langwater Hope . . . 






918.4 
910.8 
910.1 



187. Ayrshire dairy cattle. — This breed was developed in 
southwestern Scotland, particularly in the county of Ayr, from 
which the breed derives its name, although in its formative period, 



116 



Animal Husbandry 



it was known as the Dunlop and the Cunningham breed. The 
origin of this breed is complex. About 1770, Teeswater cattle 
were introduced into Ayr. A little later John Dunlop, of Dunlop, 
imported cows of large size and of uncertain ancestry, but from 
which sprang a strain known as the Dunlop breed for more than a 
century. It is stated cattle of the Channel Islands crossed with 




Fig. 49. — The Ayrshire cow. Dairy type. 

Shorthorns were early used in Ayrshire. Early in the nineteenth 
century cattle from the Highlands, from Hereford and from Devon 
found their way to Ayrshire. The Highland and Agricultural 
Society of Scotland did much to improve the breed by awarding 
liberal premiums to cattle of merit. In 1853, the Ayrshire Agri- 
cultural Association adopted a score-card and began systematic 
efforts at improvement according to a scale of points. 

188. Description of Ayrshire cattle. — This breed is of medium 
size and possesses more of a beefy tendency than some of the 



Breeds of Cattle 



117 



other dairy breeds. In general conformation, therefore, this 
breed is a little smoother than the Jersey, Holstein-Friesian or 
Guernsey, yet it is not so smooth as to conceal the wedge shape 
of the body when viewed from behind. The color is variable, 
though red, white, and brown predominate. The common color 
in America is red and white patched, with a tendency toward a 
predominance of white. The head is of medium size, and the face 
straight. The horns are white with black tips and often rather 
long. They are curved outward and upward, and often, especially 
with cows, turn back at the tips. The back is straight from the 
base of the horns to the tail ; the ribs are long and well sprung ; 
and the rump high, broad, long, and level. The thighs and hind 
quarters are often somewhat fleshy. The udder presents an un- 
excelled form, extending high behind and carried very well for- 
ward. The teats are of medium size and the veins large and long. 
The temperament is often of a nervous character (Fig. 49). 

189. Ayrshire milk and butter-fat records. — This was the 
last of the four major dairy breeds to adopt a systematic method 
of testing cows and of recording performance, although very 
creditable records have been made. 

10 Leading Yearly Records among Ayrshire Cows, April 1, 

1913 



Name of Cow 


Milk, Pounds 


Butter-Fat, 
Pounds 


85 % Butter, 
Pounds 


Lily of Willowmoor 

Netherhall Brownie 9th .... 

Gerranton Dora 2d 

Jean Armour 

Rena Ross 

The Abbess of Torr 

Auchenbrain White Beauty 2d 

Hazel of Sand Hill 

Auchenbrain Favorite Beauty 5th 
Matie of Sand Hill 


22106 
18110 
21023 
20174 
15072 
14582 
14721 
11078 
14158 
13897 


888.70 
820.91 
804.79 
774.73 
643.71 
640.72 
636.90 
627.13 
611.87 
593.16 


1045.5 
965.7 
946.8 
911.4 
757.3 
753.8 
749.3 
737.8 
719.8 
697.8 



118 



Animal Husbandry 



THE MINOR BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 

The Name, Native Home, Condition of Horns, Approximate Weight, 
and Common Color of Each of the Minor Dairy Breeds 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Horns 


Weight, 
Pounds 


Color 


Dutch Belted . . 

Brown Swiss . . 
French Canadian 
Kerry .... 


Holland 

Switzerland 

Canada 

Ireland 


Horns 

Horns 
Horns 
Horns 


1100-1700 

1200-1600 
800-1000 
600-900 


Black, white 

belt 
Brown 
Black 
Black, red 




Fig. 50. — The Dutch Belted cow. 



190. Dutch Belted cattle. — This 

breed is readily distinguished from 
other breeds of cattle by the charac- 
teristic color, which is more or less 
ornamental. They are only fair in 
milk and butter-fat production, and 
no better than the other dairy breeds 
for beef, hence they are not popular 
in America, where only a few are to 
be found (Fig. 50). 
This breed is often classified as 
This type comes between the 



191. Brown Swiss cattle 

belonging to the dual-purpose type, 
beef and dairy type, combining in 
one animal the valuable qualities 
of dairy and meat types. Brown 
Swiss cattle are distinguished by 
their form and color. They rank 
only fair as milk and beef pro- 
ducers and are not especially popu- 
lar in America (Fig. 51). 

192. French Canadian cattle. — 
In type this breed shows considerable resemblance to the Chan- 




Fig. 51. — The Brown rfwiss cow. 



Breeds of Cattle 



119 



nel Island cattle, especially the Jerseys. These cattle are noted 
for their hardihood and are, therefore, well adapted to the rigors 
of Canadian winters. French Canadian cattle give very good 
yields of milk, but have never become common in the United 
States where very few are to be found. 

193. The Kerry cattle. — In Ireland, this breed is often known 
as the poor man's cow. There are two types of Kerry cattle — 
the true Kerry and the Dexter-Kerry. The latter is the smaller, 
although 1000 pounds is seldom exceeded even by a true Kerry. 
Although the Kerry is a fair milk producer, it is not popular in 
America. Even in Ireland, where it is commonly bred, the Short- 
horn is the leading breed. 

THE MAJOR BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 

The Name, Native Home, Condition of Horns, Approximate Weight, 
and Common Color of Each of the Major Beef Breeds 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Horns 


Weight, 
Pounds 


Color 


Shorthorns 
Hereford . 
Aberdeen Angus . 
Galloway . 


England 
England 
Scotland 
Scotland 


Horns 
Horns 
Hornless 
Hornless 


1400-2000 
1400-2000 
1400-1800 
1200-1800 


Red, white, roan 
Red and white 
Black 
Black 



194. Shorthorn beef cattle. — This breed originated in north- 
east England, and first became popular in the counties of Dur- 
ham, Northumberland, Lincoln, and York. The river Tees forms 
the dividing line between Durham in the north and York, the 
largest county in England, on the south. In the valley of the 
Tees the Shorthorn received its early development and improve- 
ment, from which it spread over the rest of Great Britain and the 
civilized world. Formerly the cattle of this valley were referred 
to as Teeswater cattle, and known as Holderness. While authori- 
ties differ somewhat as to the particular stock used in the develop- 



120 Animal Husbandry 

ment of the Shorthorn, all are agreed that the largest factor enter- 
ing into their production was the native cattle of northeastern 
England, although about the middle of the eighteenth century 
bulls were introduced from Holland. 

Improvement of the Shorthorn began about 1750 although little 
progress was made prior to the time of Messrs. Charles and Robert 
Colling. These brothers began breeding about 1784, Charles at 
Ketton in Durham and Robert at Brampton, not far distant from 
Charles. One of their stock bulls was Hubback, and they bred 
the Durham Ox and The White Heifer That Traveled as well as 
Favorite and Comet. Charles Colling's herd was dispersed in 
1810 and Robert's in 1818, and in 1820. At these dispersion sales, 
their animals were scattered broadcast throughout the land. 

Thomas Bates of Kirklevington and Thomas Booth, first of 
Killerby and later of Warlaby, were famous English breeders at 
the beginning of the nineteenth century. Bates was a careful 
investigator, keeping accurate records of the food consumed to 
beef and milk produced. He laid much stress upon milk production. 
Booth laid special emphasis upon the beef type, and his cattle were 
noted for their easy-feeding and thick-fleshing tendencies. 

Amos Cruickshank of Aberdeen, Scotland, was also a very 
famous breeder of Shorthorns. He established his herd about 
1837 and gradually developed a type known as Scotch which is 
low-set, thick fleshed, and early maturing. 

195. Shorthorn families. — There are a number of very im- 
portant tribes of families of Shorthorns. Thomas Bates developed 
the Duchess, Oxford, Waterloo, Cambridge Rose, Wild Eyes, 
Foggathorpe, and other tribes. Thomas Booth developed the 
Anna, Isabella, Medora, Halnaby or White Strawberry, Bracelet, 
Moss Rose, Mantalini, Blossom or Fairholme, Cherry Blossom, and 
like strains. Amos Cruickshank established the Violet, Venus, 
Mimulus, Picotee, Broadhook, Lady, Nonpareil, Orange Blossom, 
Lancaster, Victoria, Secret, Lavender, Spicy, Lovely, and the 
other tribes. 



Breeds of Cattle 



121 



196. Description of Shorthorn cattle. — This is the largest 
of the beef breeds and adheres closely to the ideal beef type, 
although certain tribes, notably Bates bred, tend to milk produc- 
tion and are known as dual-purpose cattle. The head is short 
and broad, especially between the eyes. The horns are small and 
short, and preferably curved forward. The neck is short and 



? v '' 



?$m 



"T^B^ 



Fig. 52. — The Shorthorn bull " Avondale." Beef type. 

thick. The back is broad and straight, the ribs so well sprung 
and long as to give a large girth and good digestive capacity, with 
loins strong and broad. The rump is long, level and broad, while 
the quarters and thighs are long, thick, and deep, the fleshing 
being carried well towards the hocks. The legs are short, possess- 
ing small, clean bone, and strong joints. The color is red, white, 
and roan, and the temperament exceedingly mild (Fig. 52). 

197. Hereford beef cattle. — This breed originated in south- 
western England, particularly in the county of Hereford. The 
very early origin is no doubt much the same as the other English 



122 Animal Husbandry 

breeds, the aboriginal cattle playing an important part. The 
Hereford is one of the oldest breeds of cattle in England. 

Improvement in the Hereford began about the middle of the 
eighteenth century under the leadership of a son of Richard Tomp- 
kins, known as Benjamin the Elder, who was born in 1714 and died 
in 1789, at Wellington Court. He was a most successful breeder 
and possessed a noted herd of cattle, which passed to his son, also 
named Benjamin, and often called Benjamin the Younger, who in 
turn did much to improve the Hereford. The bulls Wellington 
and Silver Bull were two of his most famous animals. Through 
the efforts of the elder and younger Tompkins the Herefords 
gradually matured earlier, became more refined and better covered 
with flesh over the back. 

The early Hereford was still further improved by William 
Galliers of Wigmore Grange, who was intimate with Benjamin 
Tompkins the Elder and who used much the same blood in the 
work of improvement ; by John Pierce of Ryall, who was a close 
friend and disciple of Tompkins the Younger, from whom he ob- 
tained some of his best stock ; by John Hewer ; and by Thomas 
Jeffries of The Grove, Pembridge. 

198. Hereford compared with the Shorthorn. — The former is 
approximately the equal of the latter in size. The color of the Here- 
ford is a uniform characteristic, the face, breast, top of the neck, 
and legs from the knees and hocks down, and perhaps the belly, 
being white with the balance of the body red, which varies in shade. 
The head is short, broad, with the face often slightly dished, and 
crowned with whitish or yellowish horns, which spring forward 
and up in the cows, though down in the bulls, with a graceful curve. 
The neck is short and smooth, although there is occasionally a very 
heavy throat ; the shoulders are well laid and the chest broad but 
the dewlap is often overdeveloped. The back is straight, the ribs 
well-sprung and long, giving capacity. The rump, however, 
often lacks the levelness and fullness of the Shorthorn, while the 
thighs are even more deficient, being thin and pared off and lacking 



Breeds of Cattle 



123 



in thickness and depth. In temperament the Herefords are less 
docile than the Shorthorns. It is stated, however, that the Here- 
fords excel the Shorthorns in three important characteristics, 
first, in ability to take on fat at an early age ; second, as baby beef 
producers, and third, for grazing on the open range (Fig. 53). 




Fig. 53. — The Hereford cow. Beef type. 



199. Aberdeen Angus beef cattle. — This breed was developed 
in northwestern Scotland, particularly in the counties of Aberdeen, 
Kincardine, and Forfar, which have a damp, cold climate. The 
early origin of the breed is speculative and attracts attention 
because of the polled or hornless character of the head. Hornless 
cattle, however, are not uncommon. They were known to exist 
among the wild white cattle of Great Britain, and within the past 
few years, hornless cattle have been developed among the well- 
established horned breeds, such as the Herefords, Jerseys, and Short- 
horns, cattle with which the presence of horns seemed to be a fixed 
character. Formerly the Aberdeen Angus breed was known by 



124 Animal Husbandry 

many local names, the two common ones being " Buchan humlies " 
from the Buchan district, and the " Angus doddies " from the 
Angus district. The words " humle " and " dodded " are the 
Scotch terms for polled or hornless. 

Improvement of the Aberdeen Angus began early in the nine- 
teenth century under the leadership of Hugh Watson, of Keillor, 
Forfar. Watson was to the Aberdeen Angus what the Colling 
brothers were to the Shorthorns, and the Tompkins family to the 
Herefords. In his improvement, Watson emphasized family 
lines, and bred each family rather within itself. His most famous 
cow, Old Grannie, was one of the most noted cows of which we have 
record. She lived to be thirty-six years old, and gave birth to 
twenty-five calves, the last one in her twenty-ninth year. 

The early Aberdeen Angus was still further perfected by William 
McCombie of Tillyfour, Aberdeen, who laid special stress upon 
individual merit in mating, as well as superior pedigree, and by Sir 
George Macpherson Grant of Ballindalloch, whose herd was re- 
garded as the premier one of Scotland. 

200. Aberdeen Angus families. — There are a number of im- 
portant strains or families of Aberdeen Angus such as the Queens, 
descending from Queen Mother, the Ericas from Erica, the Black- 
birds from Lady Ida, the Nosegays from Nosegay, the Heather 
Blooms from Heather Blossom, and the Prides descending from the 
Pride of Aberdeen. 

201. Aberdeen Angus compared with Shorthorn. — The former 
is not so large as the latter. The striking difference between the 
two breeds is the absence of horns, and the black color of the Angus. 
The Aberdeen Angus head is short, forehead prominent and taper- 
ing at the poll. While the ribs are well-sprung, they are somewhat 
rounded, giving a cylindrical body, and thus lacking the broad back 
and loin of the Shorthorn. The rump often slopes considerably 
and the thighs are frequently rather thin, thus the Aberdeen Angus 
lacks the squareness and the depth in hindquarters of the Short- 
horn. The claim is made that the quality of the Aberdeen Angus 



Breeds of Cattle 



125 



meat excels that of the Shorthorn. The Scotch breed is more 
active in temperament than the English (Fig. 54). 




Fig. 54. — The Aberdeen Angus steer " Shamrock 2d." Beef type. 



202. Galloway beef cattle. — This breed was developed in 
southwestern Scotland, particularly in the counties of Wigton and 
Kirkcudbright, and parts of Dumfries and Ayr, that formed the 
ancient kingdom of Galloway. The climate is rather damp and 
cold much of the time, which resulted in the development of a breed 
particularly noted for its ability to endure inclement weather. 
The Galloway is a very old breed, and the early origin is obscure, 
as in the case of the Aberdeen Angus. The early improvement of 




126 Animal Husbandry 

the Galloway was due largely to careful selection and to the united 
efforts of Scotch breeders generally. Among the more noted of 
the early improvers of the breed were Lord Selkirk, Murry of 
Broughton, Herring of Corrough-tree, Gordon of Greenlaw, Max- 
well of Munches, Maitland of Kirkcudbright, Cathcart of Genoch, 
Stewart of Plygell, and many others. In 1851, the breed was 

promoted by establishing the an- 
nual Galloway sale at Lockerbie, 
which was soon followed by another 
established at Castle Douglas. 

203. Galloway compared with 
the Shorthorn. — The Galloway dif- 
fers strikingly from the Shorthorn 
in its lack of horns, its black color, 
its long, shaggy coat of hair, and 
its comparatively small size. The 

Fig. 55. — Galloway heifers. Beef ^ ,-. 1 , . » ■, , ■> , 

t Galloway head is of good type but 

less peaked at the poll than that 
of the Aberdeen Angus. While the back of the Galloway is 
straight from the poll to tail head, it is often deficient in spring 
of ribs as compared with the Shorthorn. The claim is made 
that the Galloway does not, as a rule, mature as early or fat- 
ten as rapidly as the Shorthorn, Hereford, or Aberdeen Angus, 
although Galloway cattle produce a very high-class grade of meat, 
fine in grain and flavor, with the lean and fat well interspread. 
The Galloway is of even a more active temperament than the Aber- 
deen Angus. The Galloway is ahead of the Shorthorn in hardi- 
hood and in the value of the hide, which, owing to the long coat 
of silky hair, is useful in the manufacture of robes, coats, and the 
like (Fig. 55). 

THE MINOR BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 

204. Polled Durham cattle. — Because of the similarity, this 
breed is often spoken of as hornless Shorthorns, the development 



Breeds of Cattle 



127 



and characteristics of the two breeds being practically the same. 
There are two groups of Polled Durhams, the Single Standard and 
the Double Standard, the former being eligible to record in the 
the Polled Durham Herdbook only, and the latter may be recorded 
in both the American Shorthorn Herdbook and the Polled Durham 
Herdbook. 

The Name, Native Home, Condition of Horns, Approximate 
Weight, and Common Color of Each of the Minor Beef Breeds 



Name of Breed 



Native Home 



Polled Durham 
Devon . 
Red Polled . 
Sussex . . . 
West Highland 



England 
England 
England 
England 
Scotland 



Horns 



Hornless 
Horns 

Hornless 
Horns 
Horns 



Weight, 
Pounds 



1400-2000 
1200-1800 
1200-1800 
1200-1800 
900-1200 



Color 



Red, white, roan 

Red 

Red 

Red 

Red, black 



205. Devon cattle. — This breed is often considered as a dual- 
purpose breed. It is distinguished by the bright red color, by its 
graceful, upturned, waxy-colored and black-tipped horns, and by 




Devon herd. 



its symmetrical general appearance. The Devon is often referred 
to as deerlike in character, owing to its natural refinement and 
general activity. Cattle of this breed rank high as oxen (Fig. 56). 



128 



Animal Husbandry 



206. Red Polled cattle. — This breed is also considered as a 
dual-purpose breed, in which capacity it is often given first rank. 
It is readily distinguished by its color, its lack of horns, and by the 
general conformation, as it lacks in massiveness and presents some of 
the features of the dairy-type. The udder is of fair size with a tend- 
ency to be pendent, and rather large teats are common (Fig 57). 




Fig. 57. —Red Polled herd. 

207. Sussex cattle. — This breed resembles the Devon some- 
what, although it presents more size and general beefmess, having 
a more massive body, deeper shoulders, a thicker neck, heavier 
horns, and appearing coarser generally. 

208. West Highland cattle. — This breed is easily distinguished 
by its small size, shape of horns, shaggy coat of hair, and general 
appearance. It is hardy, rugged, and attractive, and is especially 
noted for the quality of its meat, which is unexcelled, although the 
breed is late maturing, slow fattening, and possessed of a very 
nervous disposition. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many pure-bred dairy cattle are there in your vicinity ? What 
breeds are the most common ? Why are they preferred ? 

2. Are there any creameries or skimming stations in your county? 



Breeds of Cattle 129 

If so, how much milk is received at each daily ? Approximately how many 
cows supply this milk ? What is the average yield per cow ? How much 
do some of the better cows yield ? What becomes of the butter or cream ? 

3. Are there any cows tested for advanced registry in your county? 
What are some of the highest records ? Give the name and pedigree of 
the cows making them. 

4. Give the names of a few of the leading exhibitors of dairy cattle at 
your state, county, or town fair. Give the name of a few of the prize- 
winning animals. 

5. How many pure-bred beef cattle are there in your vicinity ? What 
breeds are the most popular ? Why are they preferred ? 

6. Compare the four leading beef breeds in early maturity, tempera- 
ment, grazing ability, and in the quality of meat. 

7. Give the names of a few of the leading exhibitors of beef cattle at 
your state, county, or town fair. Give the name of a few of the prize 
winning animals. 

8. Give the names of the grand champion steers at the International 
Live Stock Show, Chicago, for the past five years. By whom were they 
fitted and exhibited ? 



CHAPTER VII 



JUDGING CATTLE 



Since the age of cattle is a very important factor in determining 
their value, we should learn the methods of estimating it before 
attempting to judge them. 

209. How to estimate the age of cattle. — As with horses, 
the teeth furnish the best index to the age of cattle, although the 

horns, when present, are used to some 
extent. While the order of the ap- 
pearance of the permanent teeth and 
their method of wearing are considered 
the most accurate means of estimating 
age among cattle, they are not abso- 
lutely accurate nor are they as depend- 
able as in the horse. Teeth in cattle 
vary in much the same manner as in 
the horse (p. 34). 

The calf is often born with the cen- 
tral pair of milk teeth, and the remain- 
ing pairs appear within the first month 
after birth. The calf is provided with 
four pairs of incisor teeth. There are 
incisors in the lower jaw only, the up- 
per being provided with a cartilaginous 
pad. 

When the animal is approximately 
eighteen months of age, the middle 
pair of milk teeth is replaced by per- 
manent ones, which are fully twice as 
broad as the milk teeth, hence easily 
130 




Fig. 58. — Cow's teeth arranged 
according to age. Lower row 
12 months of age, second 
row 18 months, third row 27 
months, fourth row 36 months, 

' fifth row 45 months and top 
row ten years of age. 



Judging Cattle 131 

recognized (Fig. 58) . The intervals between the appearance of the 
succeeding pairs vary much according to the conditions, but can 
be stated as approximately nine months, perhaps more rather 
than less. In general the age of the animal at the time each pair 
is up and in full wear may be estimated as follows : — 

First or middle pair of permanent teeth 18 months 

Second or first intermediate pair of permanent teeth ... 27 months 

Third or second intermediate pair of permanent teeth ... 36 months 

Fourth or lateral pair of permanent teeth 45 months 

If there is a variation from this table, the cow is likely to be older 
rather than younger than the teeth indicate according to the ages. 
In fact, some authors say the first pair of permanent teeth appear 
at two years of age ; the second pair at three ; the third pair at 
four ; and the fourth pair at five years of age. 

210. Examination of the horns. — The horns of cattle are often 
used in estimating the age. During the first two years the horns 
grow rapidly, and in this time they make approximately their 
entire growth. After two years of age, the growth is slow, and 
each year's addition is marked by a more or less distinct ring. 
The first ring does not make its appearance until the animal is 
approximately three years old. The age is estimated, therefore, 
by adding two to the number of rings present. 

JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 

In the judging of a dairy cow, all points that have any relation 
to milk production and symmetry of form should be considered. 
In order that no part escape notice, some system must be followed 
in judging an animal, and this system can be acquired by the use 
of the score-card. The methods of using the card and rules of 
scoring are similar to those suggested in scoring the horse (p. 40). 

211. Score-card for dairy cattle. — While each breed of dairy 
cattle has its own scale of points varying in detail, they are also 
similar to the following: — 



132 



Animal Husbandry 



STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 
Dairy Cattle 



Scale of Points 



Standabd 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



General Appearance, 13 per cent 

Form, wedge shape as viewed from front, side and 
top. Spare as indicated by prominent joints and 
clean bone and lack of muscular development along 
ribs and loins 

Quality, free from coarseness throughout ; skin soft, 
pliable ; secretions abundant ; hair fine .... 

Temperament, inherent tendency to dairy perform- 
ance 

Head, 8 per cent 

Muzzle, broad 

Jaw, strong, firmly joined 

Face, medium length, clean 

Forehead, broad between eyes, dishing 

Eyes, large, full, mild, bright 

Ears, medium size, fine texture, secretions oily and 
abundant, yellow color 

Forequarters, 9 per cent 

Throat, clean 

Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, free 

from dewlap 

Withers, narrow, sharp 

Shoulders, sloping, smooth ; brisket light .... 
Fore legs, straight, clean, well set under body . . . 

Body, 23 per cent 



Crops, free from fleshiness .... 
Chest, deep, roomy ; floor broad . . 
Back, straight, strong ; vertebra open 
Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart . 
Barrel, deep, long, capacious . . . 
Loin, broad, strong 



Hindquarters, 12 per cent 

Hips, prominent, wide apart 

Rump, long, level, not sloping ........ 

Pin Bones, wide apart 

Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering 

Thighs, spare, not fleshy 

Hind legs, well apart, giving ample room for udder . 

Mammary Development, 35 per cent 

Udder, large, very flexible, attached high behind, 
carrying well forward ; quarters even, not cut up . 
Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient size 
Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending well forward . 
Milk wells, large ..... 

Total 



100 



Judging Cattle 



133 



212. Measurements of cattle. — Since the dairy type differs 
in conformation from the beef type a few exact measurements are 
recorded to fix the more important differences in mind. Since 
the form of the thin steer differs from that of the fat steer a few 
measurements are recorded to illustrate this difference in conforma- 
tion. 



Parts Measured 



Number of cattle measured 

Weight 

Height at withers . 

Height at croup 

Circumference of body at girth 
Circumference of body at paunch 
Depth of body at chest .... 
Depth of body at flank .... 

Length of croup 

Width of croup 



TYPE 



Dairy 


Beef 


Guernsey 


Jersey 


Thin 


Fat 


24 


29 


30 


31 


1121 


924 


730 


1265 


50.0 


47.1 


48.2 


53.7 


50.3 


48.0 


50.8 


55.3 


71.0 


69.0 


65.6 


83.7 


87.6 


87.0 


75.8 


94.7 


27.0 


26.7 


24.0 


28.7 


20.9 


20.7 


19.4 


22.7 


20.8 


20.0 


17.5 


20.3 


19.9 


18.8 


19.4 


20.2 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS IN DAIRY COWS 

213. Form. — The general form should be considered from two 
points of view : first, with respect to angularity ; second, freedom 
from beefiness. 

The typical form of a dairy cow is that of a triple wedge. Viewed 
from either side she should show greater depth of body behind 
than in front. The shoulder should be lower than the hips, and 
the floor of the chest higher than the bottom of the udder. If a 
straight edge were laid along the back and allowed to project for- 
ward, and a second straight edge placed along the under line touch- 
ing the bottom of the udder, the abdomen, and the floor of the chest, 




134 Animal Husbandry 

and allowed to project forward, it should meet the one from the 
back a short distance in front of the animal. Viewed from the 
rear and top the dairy cow should gradually widen from the chest 
to the hips. Straight edges placed along either side and projecting 
forward should meet a short distance in front of the animal. 

Viewed from the front and top she 
gradually widens from the withers 
backward and downward (Fig. 59) . 
The dairy cow should be spare. 
If she tends naturally to take on 
fat, she is worth just so much less 
as a milk cow. There should be an 
absence of fleshiness throughout, 
Fig. 59. — Dairy cow of good type, particularly in the region of the 

shoulders, the back, the rump, and 
about the tail-head, places likely first to show fat among animals 
possessing such a tendency. 

214. Quality. — The quality is a very important factor in the 
choice of a dairy cow. It is well determined by the condition of 
the skin, hair, and bone. The skin should be soft, mellow, oily to 
the touch, and comparatively thin. Care must be exercised in 
respect to the thinness of the skin, as a thin, papery skin is usually 
associated with weakness of constitution. The skin lining the ear, 
as well as that in the region of the udder, inside the thighs, and at 
the root of the tail, should be of a golden color, and the secretions 
abundant. The hair should be soft, silky, and comparatively 
short. Black hairs will usually be harsher than white hairs, even 
on the same animal. While many' good milking cows are loose 
in form, possessing an open conformation, yet the bone should be 
dense and of fine texture. Dairy cows possessed of a tight, heavy 
skin, coarse, harsh hair, and of a heavy, rough, coarse bone are 
deficient in quality. 

215. Constitution. — Because of the peculiar conditions under 
which most dairy cows are kept, the constitutional vigor deserves 



Judging Cattle 135 

much attention. Vigor is estimated by the expression, by the 
condition of the hair and hide, and by the chest capacity. The 
expression of the eyes, ears, and head should be mild and lively, 
and the animal should be on the alert. The chest capacity should 
be large, particularly across the floor. A good way to note the width 
of the floor of the chest is to place the hand along the chest between 
the front legs, as the width between the front legs should be great. 
Narrowness between the front legs is objectionable for the reason 
that it indicates lack of constitution. 

216. Temperament. — The dairy cow should have a good tem- 
perament. Among cattle there are two divisions of temperament: 
the nervous and lymphatic. In a cow of the former temperament, 
the nervous organization is strong and well developed, while a cow 
of lymphatic temperament is sluggish in disposition and inclined to 
fatten. For the dairy we desire a cow of nervous temperament, 
one that is sensitive and active, possessing greatest vitality, and 
that is capable of giving all organs the greatest producing powers. 

DETAIL CHARACTERISTICS OF A DAIRY COW 

217. Head. — A dairy cow should have a long, lean, and feminine 
head. There should be freedom from coarseness and heaviness. 
The face should be prolonged, lean, and the features distinct. 
The poll should be prominent and the forehead broad. The eyes 
should be mild, bright, and full. The nostrils should be large, 
permitting of the free passage of air. The ear should be of medium 
size, fine quality, and of an orange color inside. The horn should 
be rather small and free from coarseness, especially at the base. 

218. Neck. — This should be rather long, slim, and fine, carry- 
ing the head gracefully. There should be freedom from fullness 
and heaviness. The windpipe should be rather prominent, espe- 
cially up near the throat. While the neck should have a neat attach- 
ment at the head and shoulders, it should not blend so smoothly 
as in beef cattle, because of the lack of flesh. 



136 Animal Husbandry 

219. Forequarters. — The shoulders should be prominent, free 
from beefmess, and rather angular. The withers should be lean, 
thin, and refined. Both withers and shoulders should be free 
from meatiness and heaviness. The legs should be straight and 
short with fine shanks. 

220. Body. — The producing powers of the dairy cow depend 
largely on the depth and volume of the barrel. The chest should 
be deep, with a large heart girth, and broad, particularly as noted 
between the fore legs. The ribs should be long and sufficiently 
arched to provide a capacious body. The abdomen should be 
large and deep, indicative of capacity, and should be well sup- 
ported. The back should be lean, backbone rather prominent 
and strong. In many good dairy cows there is much distance be- 
tween the spinal processes, and the cow is said to be " open jointed." 
The loin should be broad, although the space between the last rib 
and hip may be rather open. 

221. Hindquarters. — As a whole, the hindquarters in a dairy 
cow should be wide, long, and deep. There should be freedom 
from fullness and meatiness, particularly at the tail-head. In 
many very good cows there is a slight rise from the hips to the 
attachment of the tail. The hip bones should be rather sharp, 
prominent, and wide apart, thus giving ample room for the gen- 
erative organs. They should not be lower than the spine. The 
rump should be long and wide, with the thurls and pin-bones high 
and wide apart. From the points of the hips to the tail-head there 
should be a marked hollow, due to the absence of flesh. The thigh 
should be outcurved and thin, as this provides room for the udder. 
A thick thigh and a full twist are decidedly objectionable in a dairy 
cow. The legs should be comparatively short. 

222. Udder. — Too much stress cannot be placed on the im- 
portance of thoroughly examining the udder when choosing a dairy 
cow. It should be considered from two points of view: the size 
and form, and the quality. 

The udder should be large. In form it should be moderately 



Judging Cattle 137 

thick, attached high and full behind, extending well down, though 
not pendulent, and extending far in front. The quarters should 
be comparatively even, with the teats of convenient size and well 
placed. The length of the udder is important since it gives a long 
line of absorption. It should be approximately thirty inches from 
the attachment at the back to where it joins the belly. 

More important than the size and form of the udder is its quality. 
Perhaps the best way to determine this is to see the udder milked 
out. When empty, the udder should almost lose its form. It 
should appear to consist of folds of soft, pliable, and loose skin. 
Those of experience can determine by the touch whether the udder 
is large because fleshy or large because filled with milk. 

While there are many defects of the udder, the most common 
are small front quarters, with the teats much higher, or close to 
the hind ones ; fleshy udders which reduce but little with milk- 
ing and yield a small flow ; udders entirely deficient in size and 
often with very unequal quarters. One must be on the alert for 
small teats, so deficient in size as to be very inconvenient when 
milking. 

223. Milk-veins. — These should be large, tortuous, and branch- 
ing, as well as long, thus extending well forward and passing into 
the body through large holes called " milk wells." These veins 
are considered important as they indicate the amount of blood 
that passes through the udder. The veins usually lack develop- 
ment in heifers with their first calves. 

224. Milk signs. — In the cow as in the bull there are several 
so-called milk signs that are relied upon more or less in the choice 
of a dairy animal. The more important of such signs are an "open" 
organization, a large " escutcheon," large " thigh ovals," and a 
long tail. 

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 

225. Score-card for beef cattle. — Each breed of beef cattle has 
its own scale of points, but they are similar to the following : — 



138 



Animal Husbandry 

STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 

Beef Cattle 



Scale of Points 



lb. 



General Appearance, 40 per cent 

Weight, estimated lb. Actual . 

cording to age 

Form, straight top and underline ; deep, broad, low- 
set, stylish, smooth, compact, symmetrical . 

Quality, fine, soft hair ; loose, pliable skin of medium 
thickness ; dense, clean, medium-sized bone . 

Condition, deep, even covering of firm mellow flesh ; 
free from patches, ties, lumps, and rolls ; full cod 
and flank indicating finish 

Head and Neck, 7 per cent 

Muzzle, broad ; mouth large ; nostrils large and open 

Eyes, large, clear, placid >. . . . 

Face, short; jaw strong 

Forehead, broad, full 

Ears, medium size ; fine texture 

Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with shoulder ; 
throat clean with light dewlap 

Forequarters, 9 per cent 

Shoulder vein, full . 

Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, snug, neat . 

Brisket, trim, neat ; breast full 

Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; arm full ; shank fine 

Body, 30 per cent 

Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth large ; crops full . . 
Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed . . 
Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly fleshed . 

Loin, thick, broad 

Flank full, even with underline 

Hindquarters, 14 per cent 

Hips, smooth 

Rump, long, wide, level ; tail-head smooth ; pin- 
bones wide apart, not prominent 

Thighs, deep, full 

Twist, deep, plump 

Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; shanks fine, smooth 



Total 



Standard 



12 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



100 



Corrected 






Judging Cattle 139 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF CATTLE 

226. Form of beef cattle. — In form the beefer in general should 
resemble a brick set on edge. It should fill out a parallelogram. 
The top and bottom lines should be parallel. The shoulders and 
chest should be almost as wide as the hips and rump. Feeders 
should be " blocky," indicating compactness and squareness of 
form. Those with long bodies are termed " rangy," while those 
with long legs showing too little depth and fullness of body are 
termed " leggy," both of which characteristics are objectionable 
in a feeder. Steers standing high from the ground, light in the 
flanks, and shallow in the heart girth rarely make good feeders. 

227. Quality of beef cattle. — Quality is determined in the 
same way as in dairy cattle, that is, by a soft, mellow hide, silky 
hair, and a fine bone. The condition of the skin is thought to 
be an important indication as to the probable feeding qualities 
of a steer. If the skin is mellow and elastic to the touch, it indicates 
good " handling." Animals possessed of such skins usually fatten 
rapidly, whereas those with heavy, stiff skins often fatten slowly. 

The food influences the handling to a marked degree. When 
the animal is liberally fed, especially on oily, laxative foods, the 
skin is soft and elastic and the hair usually silky and fine. On the 
other hand, if the animal is scantily fed, or with improper foods 
the skin often becomes tightly attached to the body, and it feels 
dry and paper-like. Cattle possessed of tough, coarse hair ; tight, 
harsh skin ; rough, heavy bones with coarse joints, prominent hips, 
and rough, open shoulders are objectionable as feeders. 

228. Condition of the feeder. — In inspecting a lot of cattle with 
a view to choosing feeders, it is important to note their condition 
in respect to thrift and fleshiness. The indications of thrift are 
a good coat of silky hair ; soft, pliable skin ; a clean and mild eye ; 
and an absence of discharge from the nostrils. Thriftiness is of 
much importance if steers are to make economical and profitable 
beef-producing animals. 



140 Animal Husbandry 

229. Uniformity among feeders. — Cattle chosen for feeding 
purposes should be of uniform age, color, type, breeding, condition, 
and quality. While such uniformity will not add to their ability 
to take on flesh or to make economical gains, it will add materially 
to their general appearance when on the market. Such a lot of 
fat steers will command a much higher price than a similar lot 
of mixed colors, or of mixed types, or of mixed breeding, or even 
of mixed ages. 



DETAIL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF CATTLE 

230. Head. — This is usually considered a good index in the 
choice of a feeder. It should be broad and short, as such accom- 
panies a low-set, thick, and wide body ; whereas a long, slim face 
is usually associated with a long, slim body. The face and cheeks 
should be full and deep with a broad, strong lower jaw. The nos- 
trils should be large, indicating that there is abundant lung capacity . 

The eyes should be large, promi- 
nent, and mild, indicating a quiet 
temperament. The beefer should 
be quiet, as a restless, nervous 
animal usually proves unsatisfac- 
tory. The forehead should be 
somewhat prominent and covered 
with a mass of wavy hair. The 
ear should be of medium size, 
Fig. 60. -Beef steer of good type. pointed, and covered inside and 

out with fine silky hair, and 
should be neatly attached to the head. If horns are present, they 
should be of fine texture and free from coarseness. 

231. Neck. — This should be short and thick, tapering gradually 
from the shoulders to the head. It should be neatly attached to 
the head and smoothly blended with the shoulder. 

232. Forequarters. — The shoulders should be well laid in, 




Judging Cattle 141 

smoothly covered with flesh, compact, and blending neatly with 
the body. The crops or withers should be full, thick, and broad. 
Both shoulders and crops should be covered uniformly with flesh. 
Rough, angular shoulders, unevenly covered with flesh, are among 
the most common defects of feeding cattle. 

233. Body. — The chest should be wide, deep, and full, with light 
development of brisket, yet sufficient to fill out the squareness of 
the body. Narrow-chested animals are, as a rule, poor feeders. 
The ribs should be well sprung and long, giving an abundance 
of room for the vital organs, such as lungs and heart, and to pro- 
vide large digestive capacity. The back should be broad and 
straight from the shoulder to the tail-head, and covered with 
thick, even flesh. The loin should be wide and joining the body 
to the hindquarters, with little or no departure from a straight 
line. 

234. Hindquarters. — As a whole, the hindquarters in the 
feeder should be wide, long, and deep. The hips should be wide 
and in proportion with the other parts, but not prominent. The 
rump should be long from the hips to the tail-head, with pin-bones 
and thurls rather high and wide, but not prominent. The rump 
should be level and free from hollo wness. The thighs should be 
full and fleshed well down to the hock, with twist full. 

235. Fat steer. — In judging fat steers, one must keep in mind 
f the demands of the butcher. He desires a steer to dress with 
a relatively small percentage of offal ; with a relatively large 
percentage of meat in the region of the valuable cuts ; and an 
animal that is in the proper condition to slaughter, that is, neither 
over nor under fed. Fullness at the base of the tongue and just 
in front of the point of the shoulder, a full twist, a full, thick flank 
that stands out and rolls as the animal walks, fullness at the tail- 
head and along the rump, indicate that degree of fatness essential 
to the highest quality of beef. 

236. Market classes of beef cattle. — On the market, beef 
cattle are divided into classes according to age, condition, and 



142 



Animal Husbandry 



quality. While this classification varies on the different markets, 
the following will give an idea of the nature of the classification: — 

Beef cattle. — This class includes exports, shipping, and dressed 
beef steers of prime, choice, good, medium, and common grades. 

Butcher stock. — This class includes the better grades of heifers, 
cows, and bulls, and common and inferior steers. Butcher stock 
is made up largely of cows and heifers. There are 12 grades. 

Cutters and canners. — This class includes thin cows and bulls, 
and inferior steers and heifers. In fact, anything of a low, in- 
ferior grade may be classed as cutters and canners. 





Fig. 61. — Diagrams of cuts of beef. 



1. Neck. 


6. Brisket. 


11. 


Flank. 


2. Chuck. 


7. Cross ribs. 


12. 


Rump. 


3. Ribs. 


8. Plate. 


13. 


Round. 


4. Shoulder clod. 


9. Navel. 


14. 


Second cut round. 


5. Fore shank. 


10. Loin. 


15. 


Hind shank. 



Texas and western range cattle. — In reality this is a sub-class of 
beef cattle ; it includes all grades of Texas cattle and branded 
cattle from the western ranges. Such grades are very similar 
to the standard grades of beef cattle. 

Milkers and springers. — Cows classed as milkers and springers 
are sold in the market as butcher stock or as cutters and canners. 

Stockers and feeders. — This class includes calves, yearlings, two- 



Judging Cattle 143 

year-olds, and older cattle. It may include steers, heifers, or 
bulls. 

Veal calves. — This class includes all grades of veal calves. 

237. Cuts of beef. — The methods of cutting beef into parts, 
and the terms used to designate the different " cuts " as these 
parts are commonly called, vary in different localities. However, 
the preceding diagrams will serve to show the parts of the ani- 
mal from which the cuts are taken. These may serve to aid in 
dealing with the meat market (Fig. 61). 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are farm animals classified in the entry list at fairs and shows ? 

2. How does a cow's mouth differ from that of a horse ? 

3. Why should a dairy cow be of triple- wedge shape and spare? Is 
a dairy cow highest at the withers or at the croup, and why ? Why should 
the tail be long ? 

4. Contrast the four major dairy breeds in respect to the shape and 
size of the udder, teats, and milk veins. 

5. Why is an open or loose organization of advantage to the dairy 
cow ? What are the external indications of such an organization ? Why 
is a mild temperament desired in the dairy cow ? 

6. Why should the beef animal be of parallelogramic form and fleshy ? 
Why should the steer be thick-fleshed over the back, loin, and rump ? 

7. Contrast the four major beef breeds in form. Which is the most 
desirable, and why ? 

8. Why should a drove of fat steers be uniform in age, weight, type, 
condition, and quality when shipped to market ? 

9. Why is the heavy developed brisket looked upon with less favor 
than formerly, particularly in Hereford cattle ? 

10. In judging feeding cattle, what disposition should be made of the 
condition of flesh? Assuming that other characters are equal, should 
thin cattle be given the preference, and why ? 



CHAPTER VIII 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



The feeding of the dairy cow differs essentially from the feeding 
of the horse. This is due, in part, to the increased digestive ca- 
pacity and to the nature of the resulting product. The object is 
to feed the cow so as to secure the maximum milk production. 



Wolff-Lehman Standard showing the Amount of Food required 
per 1000 Pounds Live Weight for the Growing and the 
Mature Cow yielding Varying Quantities of Milk 







Digestible Nutrients 






Dry- 

Matter 








XT 


Condition of Animal 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Ratio 


Growing Cattle, Dairy Breeds 












Age, Mo. 


Weight 




2-3 


150 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


1 


4.5 


3-6 


300 


24 


3.0 


12.8 


1.0 


1 


5.1 


6-12 


500 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


1 


6.8 


12-18 


700 


26 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


1 


7.5 


18-24 


900 


26 
25 


1.5 
1.6 


12.0 
10.0 


0.3 
0.3 


1 


8.5 


Milking Cows, when yielding 
Daily 




11.0 lb. of milk 


1:6.7 


16.6 lb. of milk 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


1:6.0 


22.0 lb. of milk 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


1 . 5.7 


27.5 lb. of milk 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


1:4.5 



144 



Feeding Dairy Cattle 



145 



238. Food requirements for milk. — The quantity of food re- 
quired by a milking cow depends on many factors, the chief of 
which are the kind of food, the quantity of milk yielded, the quality 
of the milk, as well as the individuality, the weight, and the age 
of the animal. 

Armsby's Standard showing the Digestible Protein and Energy 
required for a 1000-pound cow yielding varying quantities of 
Average Milk 



Daily Milk Yield 


Digestible Protein, 
Pounds 


Energy Value, 
Therms 


15 pounds of milk 

20 pounds of milk 

25 pounds of milk 


1.25 
1.50 
1.75 


10.50 
12.00 
13.50 



Haecker's Standard showing Food of Maintenance per 100 Pounds 
Live Weight and Nutrients required for the Production of 1 
Pound of Milk testing a given per cent of Butter-Fat l 



For maintenance 

Milk testing 2.5 
Milk testing 3.0 
Milk testing 4.0 
Milk testing 5.0 
Milk testing 6.0 
Milk testing 6.5 



Protein 



0.0700 



Carbohydrate 



0.700 



Fat 



0.0100 



0.0362 
0.0397 
0.0467 
0.0537 
0.0607 
0.0642 



0.164 
0.181 
0.214 
0.247 
0.280 
0.296 



0.0124 
0.0136 
0.0159 
0.0182 
0.0206 
0.0217 



Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 79. 



EFFECT OF FOOD ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE MILK 

It is asserted that the food may affect the milk in many ways, 
the two most important being its composition and its flavor. 



146 



Animal Husbandry 



*i ^ 



Fig. 62. — Holstein-Friesian cow. 



There are three ways in which the composition might be affected : 
first, by changing the proportion of water and total solid matter ; 
second, by changing the proportion of fat, sugar, and proteids; 
and third, by changing the constituents or consistency of the fat. 

239. Effect of food on total solids. — In the great majority of 
cases the conclusion of experiments is that no consistent relation 
seems to exist between the quantity or character of the food and 
the composition of the milk. In a few cases a temporary change 

^^— ^^^^^»-- - , a occurred in the milk immediately 
|. Wm mm a ^ er cnan Si n § the food, but in 

mMt WmWP^^ most cases the milk soon returned 
h ^^s jL^j $$F to its normal composition. While 

^Vw*^ " m a ver Y small number of experi- 

ments the milk appeared to un- 
dergo slight permanent change, yet 
one is forced to the conclusion that 
the quality of the milk cannot be 
changed at will by the feed. The treatment of the cattle has 
a greater influence upon the character of the milk than does the 
food consumed. 

240. Effect of food on the percentage of fat. — The idea prevails 
that it is possible to feed fat into milk. After a painstaking perusal 
of the experimental work, one is forced to conclude that it is 
not possible materially and permanently to increase or diminish 
the percentage of fat by changes in the amount and character of 
the food, providing, of course, that the animals receive sufficient 
nutrition in all cases. A cow that has been insufficiently fed and 
has never had a chance to develop, may be fed such an abundance 
of rich milk-producing food as slightly and permanently to in- 
crease the percentage of fat in her milk ; but beyond this we prob- 
ably cannot go. 

241. Food and flavor of milk. — It is definitely known that cer- 
tain foods, especially if fed in large quantities, impart bad odors to 
the milk. Chief among the foods producing such deleterious effects 



Feeding Dairy Cattle 147 

are cabbage, turnips, onions, silage, wild leeks, and the like. It is 
held that such odors may be imparted to the milk in two ways: 
first, by transference through the animal, and second, by absorp- 
tion from the air of the stable. 

242. Order of supplying food. — Because of the supposed ill 
effect of some foods in giving odors to the milk, the order of supply- 
ing certain of these foods assumes much importance. In the case 
of cabbage, turnips, and the like, it is perhaps best that they be 
fed after milking. Hay, which is likely to contain more or less 
dust, is best fed after milking also, and in either of these cases 
grain would necessarily be fed first. Perhaps the ideal way is to 
feed the grain and succulent food together, sprinkling the grain 
over the succulent food, and then when these are both cleaned up, 
to feed the hay. A good order for the day's work is as follows: 
in the morning, milk first, then feed grain, then silage, clean stable, 
water, feed hay, groom the animals, then, on pleasant days, turn 
them out for an hour or so. In the afternoon, water, clean stables, 
feed grain, milk, feed silage, arrange bedding, and lastly feed some 
long hay. Sufficient attention is not usually given to the day's 
program, in the dairy business. 

243. Effect of food on quantity of milk. — Occasionally the state- 
ment that we cannot increase the percentage of fat in milk by feed- 
ing is taken to mean that we cannot increase the total fat yield. 
This, of course, is not true. We can very materially increase the 
total yield of fat by increasing the total flow of milk by liberal 
feeding. This is demonstrated on every hand. On the farms 
where no succulent food is fed during the winter, and very little 
grain, it is well known that the cows will give a much larger flow 
when turned to pasture in the spring. On the average the per- 
centage of fat will remain the same. 

244. Watering the milking cow. — The milch cow requires a 
liberal supply of water. She not only has the demands of her body 
to meet, but must supply water for the milk as well. When we 
recall that cows have yielded over one hundred and thirty-four 



148 Animal Husbandry 

pounds of milk in a single day, we can see the urgent need of a 
large supply of water. It has been fairly well proved that cattle 
provided with water constantly give a slightly larger yield than 
those watered twice daily, though the difference is not marked. 
This observation has led to the placing of small troughs or vessels 
in the stable immediately in front of the animals. 

There are two factors that must not be lost sight of in watering 
the milking cow: regularity and temperature of water in winter. 
Whatever method of watering is employed, the animal should be 
watered regularly and uniformly. When we recall the large amount 
of water necessary to meet the needs of the high-producing cow, 
it becomes apparent that she should not be compelled to drink ice- 
cold water. It requires much food to heat this water to the body 
temperature, and the animal will not drink as much as it needs. 
To take the chill off drinking water in winter is now an accepted 
practice with progressive dairymen. 

FEEDING THE MILKING COW 

Feeding dairy cattle naturally divides itself into two parts : 
the summer period when the cows are at pasture, and the winter 
period when they are stabled and fed their entire ration. 

245. Summer feeding of dairy cattle. — Pasture is one of the 
essentials of successful dairy farming. The favorable influence of 
early spring pasture on the secretion of milk is well known. The 
flow is materially increased, as is the total yield of fat, though 
the percentage of fat is perhaps not materially altered. 

As a rule, in the early part of the pasture season, the cows will 
obtain sufficient food from the pastures alone, but later in the 
season it will often be necessary to supplement the pasture. This 
may be done by soiling, — cutting the forage and feeding it to the 
cattle green, — with silage, or with grain. 

Experiments seem to indicate that the feeding of grain to cows 
on pasture is profitable, especially when there is scarcity of pas- 



Feeding Dairy Cattle 



149 



turage, although they will consume but* little while the pasture 
is abundant and nutritious. It would seem wise, however, in 
case the animals eat it, to provide a few pounds of wheat bran, or 
bran and oats mixed, particularly in the case of heavy milkers, as 
this will insure maximum production. 

246. Soiling. — This consists of cutting green crops and feed- 
ing them fresh. Successful and economical soiling means furnish- 
ing to the milking cow a supply of green forage during the growing 

Example of Rotation of Soiling Crops, showing Kind of Forage, 
Seed to Acre, Time of Seeding, Approximate Areas, and Time of 
Cutting for a Herd of 10 Cows, allowing 60 Pounds of Forage 
a Cow Daily or 600 Pounds a Day in All. 

ILLINOIS — FRASER'S SOILING SYSTEM AS BASIS 
5 Months — May 15 to October 15 — 10 Cows — 60 Pounds per Cow Daily 



Kind of Crop 


Seed per Acre 


T^me of 
Seeding 


Area 


Time of Cutting 


Rye . . . 


2 bu. 


Fall 


1 acre 


May 15-May 31 
June 1-June 10 


Alfalfa or wheat 


2bu. 


Fall 


\ acre 


Red clover 


20 1b. 


Spring 


\ acre 


June 11-June 20 


Mixed 


Clover . . 


10 1b. 








Timothy . 


10 1b. 


Spring 


1 acre 


June 21- July 1 




[ Red top 


15 1b. 










r Oats . . 


2bu. 


Spring 


| acre 


July 1-July 5 




^ Vetch . . 


1 bu. 








7VT- A 


Oats . . 


ljbu. 










Peas 


1| bu. Can- 


Spring 


\ acre 


July 6-July 10 




ada peas 








Corn, early ; 2d cut- 


10-20 lb. 


Spring 


\ acre 


July 11-July 31 


ting alfalfa 










Corn, medium ; 2d 


10-20 lb. 


Spring 


\ acre 


Aug. 1-Aug. 31 


cutting, clover and 










grasses 










Corn, late ; 3d cut- 


10-20 lb. 


Late 


\ acre 


Sept 1-Sept. 30 


ting alfalfa 




spring 






Rape 


10 1b. 


June 


\ acre 


Oct. 1-Oct. 15 



150 Animal Husbandry 

season. It means that crops and areas must be so arranged that 
one green crop will succeed another during the entire season. 
There are many advantages of soiling, such as increased food pro- 
duction from a given area, providing three times that of pasturage ; 
less waste, as the cattle are not constantly tramping and lying 
on the forage ; greater variety of food, as the succession of crops 
provides many changes ; increased milk and butter production 
when prices are high, as in the fall ; less discomfort of animals, 
as they are fed in the cool stables ; and less fencing required. 
One great objection is the increased labor; such as preparing 
the soil for the crops, seeding every few days, cutting the crop 
of green material and hauling to stables, — the food being green 
and heavy, — and the extra labor of carrying for the cattle in the 
stable. 

247. Winter feeding of dairy cattle. — Winter feeding is the 
most expensive, and the profit to be derived will depend, in a 
large part, upon the economy of the winter ration. This does 
not mean that the cow should be fed sparingly ; on the other hand, 
the good dairy cow should be fed abundantly with a variety of 
nutritious feeds. A good dairy cow should make economical use 
of seven to ten pounds of grain per day, and fifteen to twenty 
pounds of dry forage, or better still, thirty to forty pounds of 
succulent food, and five to ten pounds of dry forage or hay, the 
exact amounts to be varied to meet conditions. 

248. Concentrated feeds. — The more common grains fed to 
dairy cattle are the cereals — corn, oats, wheat, barley, and rye 
— and the mill refuse, of which there is an almost endless variety 
upon the market. The amount of grain that can be fed with 
profit to a dairy cow will depend on the price of the food, the 
yield of the cow, and the price obtained for her products. Some 
have suggested the feeding of as many pounds of grain per day as 
the cow produces pounds of butter-fat per week. In determining 
the amount and kind of grain, it is necessary to take into account 
the forage that is to go with it. For example, in many dairies 




Feeding Dairy Cattle 151 

it is found that bran may be replaced ton for ton by carefully cured 
alfalfa hay, or by five tons of pea-vine silage when not too suc- 
culent. 

249. Dry forage. — The more common dry forage crops fed 
to dairy cattle are clover, alfalfa, or mixed hays and corn stalks. 
Occasionally pure timothy hay is fed, though this is not to be 
recommended, particularly if cut late. Straws of the various 
small grains are also used, but 
they are even more worthless as 
a dairy cow feed than is timothy 
hay. Hay cut early is more valu- 
able ton for ton, though the yield 
obtained per acre will not be so 
great. The exact amount of dry 
forage that should be fed cannot be 
stated, as it will depend on the 

, - . , , ., Fig. 63. — Jersey cow. 

amount of gram and whether or 

not silage is being used. Let the rule be to feed all the hay the 

animal will eat with relish. 

250. Succulent feeds. — Some kind of succulent food should be 
fed the dairy cow during her entire lactation period. The common 
succulent foods used in feeding dairy cattle are silage, roots, or 
tubers. Silage is preferable, but if the herd is not large enough 
to warrant the construction of a silo, roots make a good substitute. 
The amount of succulence it is profitable to feed will depend much 
on the attendant conditions. Thirty to forty pounds serve most 
conditions. 

251. Silage. — Green food preserved in the silo is coming to 
be a very common succulence for the dairy cow. While there 
are many green plants, such as alfalfa, clover, cowpea vines, and 
the like, preserved in this way, corn is the most important silage 
crop. No other plant will furnish nearly so much silage per acre 
as corn. All silage contains a very high percentage of water, and 
for this reason is bulky. As a succulent food for milking cows, 



152 Animal Husbandry 

good corn silage is hard to improve on. It is very palatable, 
readily digestible, and to stimulate the flow of milk it is second 
only to grass. 

252. Roots and tubers. — When the construction of a silo 
is not convenient, one can procure a good succulent food by raising 
roots and tubers. While there are may roots and tubers, such 
as potatoes, beets, "flat turnips, ruta-bagas, and the like, that may 
be grown, mangels are the most important root-crop as a suc- 
culent food for cattle. These roots all possess a very high per- 
centage of water, even more than silage. As a succulent food for 
the milking cow they are excellent, being palatable, almost en- 
tirely digestible, and stimulating the flow of milk. 

THE CALF 

253. Feeding the calf. — It is especially important for the 
calf that it get the first or colostrum milk of the dam. This milk 
is rich in mineral matter and ash, is a powerful laxative, and is 
effective in removing the fecal matter from the alimentary canal 
and in addition it serves as a tonic. The calf should be allowed to 
suck the dam a few times ; some recommend until the milk is fit 
for human consumption, usually about the eighth or ninth milking, 
while others recommend separating them on the second day, 
provided the calf is strong and the cow's udder in good shape, 
as the cow is more easily reconciled to the separation, and the calf 
can then be more easily taught to drink than if it has sucked the 
cow for some time. 

254. Danger of overfeeding calf. — When feeding by hand, 
there is much danger of overfeeding and gorging the calf's stomach, 
thereby causing digestive disorder, scours, and death. When 
permitted to run with the cow, the calf sucks many times daily, 

— ten to twenty, — taking only a little milk at a time. When 
removed from the dam and left from eight to twelve hours, it 
gets exceedingly hungry, and when offered milk in large quantities, 



Feeding Dairy Cattle 153 

will gorge itself and bring digestive disorders that may prove 
fatal. 

255. Calf on whole milk. — For the first few weeks, the calf 
should be given the milk from its own dam, since changing to another 
cow is likely to throw the digestive system out of balance, and 
result in digestive disorders such as scours, colic, and the like. 
The milk should be fed from a clean pail, directly after milking, 
while still at the body temperature. The amount of milk fed 
should be carefully regulated. A good plan with the average calf is 
to give four pounds (two quarts) of whole milk three times daily. 

256. Calf on skim-milk. — Whole milk, being rather expensive, 
should not be fed longer than is necessary. The change from whole 
milk to skim-milk should begin when the calf is four weeks of age. 
This change should be made gradually, so that the calf may ad- 
just itself to the new feed without trouble. Increase the skim- 
milk one pound each day and decrease the whole milk by the same 
amount. 

When two or three weeks old, the calf should be taught to eat 
a little grain. This is best accomplished by placing a handful in 
the pail immediately after the calf has finished drinking the milk. 
It is not a good practice to put the grain in the milk, as the calf 
will swallow it with the milk and not learn to masticate it prop- 
erly. After the calf has learned to eat the grain, a box should 
be provided in which to feed the grain. The grain should be 
fresh and clean. At six weeks of age, the calf should be eating 
one pound daily of the following mixture : 3 parts corn meal, 
3 parts ground oats, 3 parts wheat bran, and 1 part linseed meal. 

257. Removing horns from young calves. — When dairy cattle 
are desired without horns, the removal is very easily accomplished 
while the calf is very young. As soon as the horn can be located 
by examining the head with the hand, clip the hair away from 
the budding horn. Wrap a stick of caustic potash in paper to 
protect the hand, dip the end of the stick in water, and rub this 
upon the tip of the horn until the skin or scurf begins to loosen up 



154 



Animal Husbandry 



and gets red, taking care all the time that none of the potash comes 
in contact with the skin surrounding the horn. In a few days the 
place will scale over. One application is sufficient. 

258. Sample rations for the dairy cow. — The following rations 
are collected from various sources, and furnish a guide in deter- 
mining the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed a dairy 
cow. They apply to a 1000-pound dairy cow yielding 22 pounds 
of average milk : — 



No. 


Ration 


Ratio 


Grain 


Forage 


1 


3 lb. corn meal 

3 lb. oats 

2 lb. linseed meal 


20 lb. hay 


1:6.7 


2 


3 lb. oats 

3 lb. wheat bran 

2 lb. gluten feed 


50 lb. roots 

corn stalks ad lib. 


1:6.9 


3 


3 lb. middlings 

3 lb. dry brewers' grains 

2 lb. linseed meal 


40 lb. corn silage 
corn stalks ad lib. 


1:7.3 


4 


2 lb. oats 

4 lb. wheat bran 

2 lb. gluten meal 


40 lb. corn silage 
hay ad lib 


1:6.8 


5 


3 lb. oats 

2 lb. wheat bran 

1 lb. linseed meal 

1 lb. cotton-seed meal 


50 lb. corn silage 
hay ad lib. 


1:6.6 


6 


2 lb. oats 

2 lb. wheat bran 

2 lb. corn i 


30 lb. corn silage 
clover hay ad lib. 


1:7.4 


7 


4 lb. wheat bran 
2 lb. corn meal 


30 lb. alfalfa silage 
clover hay ad lib. 


1 : 5.0 


8 


4 lb. oats 

2 lb. corn meal 


20 lb. alfalfa hay 


1 : 4.4 


9 


4 lb. wheat bran 

2 lb. cotton-seed meal 


30 lb. corn silage 

cotton-seed hulls ad lib. 
40 lb. corn silage 

cowpea hay ad lib. 


1:7.8 


10 


6 lb. wheat bran 


1 : 5.9 



Feeding Dairy Cattle 



155 



Grain Mixture for Calf Ration 

3 parts corn meal 
3 parts ground oats 
3 parts wheat bran 
1 part linseed meal 



Age, Mo. 


Grain Mixture Lb. 


Summer 


Winter 


6 
12 

18 


2 
4 
6 


pasture 
pasture 
pasture 


clover hay 
clover hay 
clover hay 



QUESTIONS 

1. Which standard calls for the most protein, Wolff-Lehman, Armsby, 
or Haecker ? Which calls for the most carbohydrates ? Which standard 
is the most accurate for the cow yielding milk containing a high percent- 
age of fat ? 

2. Does the food fed affect the percentage of fat ? The percentage of 
total solids ? The color of the fat ? The churning properties of the milk ? 
Or, the total yield of milk ? 

3. Name six foods that affect the flavor of milk. When should such 
foods be fed ? Why should hay not be fed immediately before milking ? 

4. How much protein would there be in the milk of a cow yielding 30 
pounds per day ? What factors would influence this ? What other needs 
would the cow have for protein ? Where must this protein come from ? 

5. Why does the heavy yielding milk cow need large amounts of water ? 
In how many ways may this be supplied ? What food calls for a heavy 
consumption of water ? 

6. Why is succulent food so essential to the high yielding milk cow? 
In how many ways may this succulence be supplied ? Which is the more 
digestible ? Which promotes milk yield more efficiently ? 

7. How many acres of soiling crops would be required for a herd of 
twenty cows in your vicinity? Arrange a soiling system that will fill 
your conditions. Since the soiling system is so efficient, why is it not in 
more general use with dairy farmers ? 

8. Why are cows on test for advanced registry records fed and milked 



156 Animal Husbandry 

four times daily? Would better results be obtained from feeding and 
milking six times per day ? Why ? 

9. Why is a fresh cow's milk unfit for human consumption ? How does 
this first milk differ from average milk? Why is it so essential for the 
calf ? Why are Jersey calves thought to be more difficult to raise than 
Shorthorn calves? Why are milk substitutes of questionable value in 
calf breeding ? 

10. Name the foods that are commonly fed dairy cattle in your vi- 
cinity. Find out exactly what some persons are feeding and calculate 
the dry-matter, nutritive ratio, and energy value. Compare with the 
three standards. How can such a ration be improved? 



CHAPTER IX 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 

The production of clean milk calls for exacting care of the 
dairy cow. This is so important in milk production that milk is 
classified according to the care given the herd. 

SANITARY MILK 

By sanitary milk is meant a clean, wholesome product produced 
under sanitary conditions. The principal factors to be considered 
in its production are the cow, the stable, the milk house, the 
milking, and the cooling and storing of the milk. 

259. The cow. — In the production of clean milk extra care 
must be given the cows. They must be curried daily to remove 
the loose hair and dirt. The udder and rear parts of the cow 
should be clipped, thus removing the long dirt-catching hair and 
rendering the parts much more easily cleaned. The udder should 
be wiped with a damp cloth just before milking. Care should be 
taken to feed clean, nutritious foods and such as will not con- 
tribute an undesirable flavor to the milk. The drinking water for 
the cows should be clean, fresh, and the tanks protected from 
possible contamination. 

260. The stables. — If one is to produce sanitary milk, the 
stable must be kept clean. This applies to dust, cobwebs, and 
the like, as well as to the manure and litter. Much light and good 
ventilation are essential. The floors should be of cement. The 
gutters and litter should be cleaned out twice daily, and the 
material hauled to the field, or placed in a protected water-tight 
pit outside the barnyard, of sufficient distance to prevent odors 

157 



158 Animal Husbandry 

from reaching the stable. The covered shed, if one is used, and 
stable-yard must be clean and well drained. 

The cows should be bedded liberally, particularly if the floor 
is of cement. The bedding should not be permitted to become 
foul, as this not only lessens the comfort of the cattle, but makes 
it more difficult to keep them clean, and it promotes disease. Old 
straw makes the best bedding material, but, when high in price, it 
may be replaced by many other materials, such as shavings from 
the planing mill, — which make a clean and sweet bedding, — 
by tan-bark, by leaves, and the like. 

261. Milk-house. — Preferably the milk-house should be sepa- 
rate from the barn and located at a safe distance from all sources 
of contamination, yet convenient to the cows. It should be 
divided into two rooms, one for heating water and cleaning the 
utensils, and the other for weighing, sampling, cooling, and storing 
the milk. The milk-house should be well lighted and well venti- 
lated, the floors should be constructed of cement, and the walls 
and ceiling made tight and smooth in order that they may be easily 
cleaned. The windows and doors should be screened to exclude 
the flies. 

262. Milk utensils. — The milk-cooler, the pails, cans, strainers, 
and the like, should be first soaked in warm water, then washed 
in boiling water containing some cleaning material, rinsed in clean, 
hot water, and then sterilized with steam. After this thorough 
cleaning, they should be inverted in the pure air, preferably 
in the sunlight. 

263. Milking. — The milker should be cleanly in his habits, 
and should milk with dry hands. A small-topped milk pail should 
be used to exclude the dirt as far as possible. As soon as each cow 
is milked, the milk should be taken directly to the milk-house and 
there weighed, a record made of the weight, a sample taken to 
test for the fat, then it should be strained, and immediately run 
over a cooler, reducing its temperature as low as possible (Fig. 64). 
The milk should then be kept at as low a temperature as possible. 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 



159 



A good plan is to set the cans in a vat containing ice, and cover 
the vat with a lid. If this is not convenient, set the cans in run- 
ning well or spring water. During transportation, cover the cans 




Fig. 64. — Cooling milk. 



Milk cooled immediately after drawing will keep sweet 
much longer than otherwise. 



with a blanket. In summer the blanket should be wet, in winter 
dry. 

264. Milking machines. — Perhaps the most important factor 
retarding the development of dairying is the difficulty of securing 
milkers who can be depended on to do their work satisfactorily. 
In general the size of the dairy is restricted to the number of cows 



160 Animal Husbandry 

that the owner can attend to at such times as his help fails him. 
If the question of milking the cows, without being so dependent 
on hired help, could be satisfactorily solved, the number of animals 
kept on many dairy farms would increase up to the limit of the 
acreage to feed the animals. 

There are now machines on the market that will milk cows. 
There are, however, many questions relative to their use that 
cannot be answered with much positiveness ; chief of which are 
the efficiency with which they milk, the effect on the cow, the 
effect on the milk, and their economy. 

It is well known that one milker may secure more milk than 
others from the same cow, and that after a cow has become ac- 
customed to a milker, a change results in a decrease in the pro- 
duction. It may be expected, therefore, that the immediate 
effect of changing from hand to machine milking will be attended 
by the same results. The figures available go to show that, 
taking the year through, the average cow yields approximately 
as much milk to the machine method as to the hand method of 
milking, particularly if she is stripped by hand after the machine 
milking. 

265. Milk-records. — Record of performance among dairy 
cattle constitutes the only method of determining their value. 
Without such records, we would not be able to choose the very 
high- or the very low-producing, or the profitable from the un- 
profitable animals. At present, many dairy herds possess cattle 
producing at a loss — not yielding sufficient milk to pay for the 
food consumed — yet in the absence of accurate records the fact 
goes unobserved and the owner does not know the profitable from 
the unprofitable animals. No person is able to go into a herd of 
ten cows and pick out all the best by examination. Records are 
absolutely necessary to determine profit and loss. 

266. Method of keeping records. — Records are more easily 
kept than is generally supposed. The time and cost of keeping a 
record of the amount of milk and butter-fat yielded by each cow 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 161 

is quite insignificant, especially when compared with the value of 
such records. The materials needed are a pair of scales, a hand 
Babcock tester with outfit, and a blank milk-sheet. 

Once each month the milk from each cow should be tested for 
the percentage of butter-fat. To do this, one should take a sample 
of the milk for two successive days. The sample need not be 
large, but the quantity should be in proportion to the flow. One- 
half pint saved from the two days' milking is sufficient. This 
should be placed in a jar and covered to prevent evaporation. In 
warm weather it is necessary to put some sort of preservative 
into the milk, otherwise it will sour, and in that case cannot be 
tested. For each cow there should be a jar with her name pasted 
upon it, thus avoiding any possibility of getting the samples mixed. 
By placing the percentage of fat thus obtained on the record- 
sheet, one has a complete record of each animal each month. 
By multiplying the total milk by the per cent of fat, one gets 
the total amount of fat. This completes the record for the 
month. 

267. Value of milk-records. — The highest degree of success 
cannot be attained unless we know the production of each indi- 
vidual cow. In addition, such records serve a much larger use- 
fulness because they enable us to mate the animals more judiciously. 
Not only are the low-producers unprofitable in themselves, but 
in the absence of a record of their production, they are propagated, 
and their offspring in turn prove unprofitable. 

TESTING MILK FOR BUTTER-FAT 

The materials needed in testing milk for butter-fat are a cen- 
trifugal tester, test-bottles, a 17.6 c.c. (cubic centimeter) pipette 
to measure the milk, a 17.5 c.c. acid measure, and sulfuric acid, 
all of which can be purchased for about five dollars from any dairy 
supply company (Fig. 65). They may be ordered of a hardware 
dealer. Sulfuric acid is sold at any drug store. 



162 Animal Husbandry 

268. Sampling the milk. — The milk to be tested should be 
thoroughly mixed just before sampling. To do this, pour back 
and forth between two vessels several times. With the pipette, 
measure out 17.6 c.c. of milk, and place in the test-bottle. To 
do this, suck the milk up above the 17.6 c.c. mark. Quickly 
place the index finger over the upper end of the pipette, then by 
releasing the pressure allow the milk to run down to the 17.6 c.c. 
mark. Place the point of the pipette into the test-bottle neck, 
holding both pipette and bottle at an angle, then remove the finger 
to allow the milk to flow into the bottle. To be sure that every 
drop is out of the pipette blow through it into the test-bottle. 
The sampling should be done in duplicate to make sure of the 
results. 

269. Using the acid. — Much care should be exercised not to 
spill the sulfuric acid on the hands, clothing, or floor. Should 
any be accidentally spilled, pour on plenty of water, than add a 
little lime or baking soda. Always keep water and lime at hand 
for this purpose. 

After all the samples of milk to be tested have been measured, 
the acid should be added. To do this, fill the acid measure to the 
17.5 c.c. mark, and gradually pour into the test-bottle, holding the 
bottle in a slanting position. By turning the bottle the acid will 
carry down all particles of milk left in the long neck. Hold the 
bottle by the neck and give it a circular motion for a few moments, 
thus mixing the milk and acid until no milk or clear acid is visible. 
The contents of the bottle should be dark colored and hot. Do 
not allow the bottle to stand too long before mixing or the test 
will not be clear. 

270. Whirling the bottles. — The bottles and machine should 
be hot ; and if it is not a steam machine, use boiling water to 
warm it. Place the bottles in the machine so that each will 
have another directly opposite to keep the machine in balance. 
Whirl five minutes. Then stop, and with the pipette or a cup 
with small spout, add hot water to each bottle until the contents 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 



163 




164 Animal Husbandry 

come up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two minutes. Add 
hot water sufficient to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of 
the graduation on the neck of the bottle. Whirl one minute. 
The fat should form a clear column free from black or white patches 
in the neck of the bottle. 

271. Reading the percentage of fat. — Keep the fat warm. 
Hold the bottle by the upper end of the neck, letting it hang in a 
perpendicular position on a level with the eye. Read the mark 
at the top and bottom of the column of fat. The difference be- 
tween these is the percentage of fat in the milk. For example, 
if the top reading is 8.2 and the bottom 5.0, then the milk tests 
3.2 per cent. 

Much care should be exercised in cleaning the test-bottles as 
they should be perfectly free from dirt when used. 

272. Testing associations. — In those sections of the country 
in which dairying is extensively practiced, the forming of testing 
associations will prove very advantageous. Cow-testing associa- 
tions are organizations of farmers having for their object the deter- 
mination of the production of the individual cow in the herd. 

273. General plan of organization. — A number of dairymen, 
twenty to twenty-five, having a total of 300 to 600 cows, effect 
an organization, elect officers, adopt a constitution and by-laws, 
and give the officers power to employ a man to do the testing. 
This tester visits each of the herds once a month,- weighs the milk 
of each cow for a period of twenty-four hours, takes the samples 
of the same and tests for percentage of fat. In some cases the 
tester weighs the feed of each cow and figures the cost of the ration. 
The tester makes a complete record for each cow in the herd, 
of the amount of milk, the percentage of fat and total fat, and 
the food consumed, leaves a copy of this record with the dairyman, 
and proceeds to the next herd, to return again in about one month. 
In addition he gives all the helpful suggestions possible, such as 
the successful practices of the other members of the association. 
The entire cost to the dairyman is approximately one dollar 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 165 

per cow in addition to boarding and providing passage for the 
tester. 

274. Records of performance and of breeding. — In order to 
mate dairy cattle judiciously, it is absolutely essential that we 
know not only something of the performance of the animals thus 
mated, but the records of production of their ancestors as well. 
Such records enable us to mate the best with the best, and in so 
doing improve the strain with which we are working. 

275. The individual animal the unit of improvement. — In the 
improvement of dairy cattle by breeding, the individual must 
be considered as the unit. This applies to sire and dam alike. 
The longer the line of high-producing ancestry, the more certain 
are we that the offspring in turn will be a high-producer. The 
importance of this individual record of performance, backed by 
ancestors with similar records, cannot be overestimated. Having 
satisfied one's self as to the individual excellency of both sire and 
dam, one must even then be prepared to accept some low-pro- 
ducers, for such is the law of chance, which accompanies all breed- 
ing operations. One may, however, rest assured that on the 
average the offspring of individuals thus carefully selected will be 
equal to their parents, and that he will be rewarded by obtaining 
a few that will exceed the records of their parents. 

276. Formation of the dairy herd. — Perhaps one of the most- 
discussed questions in the formation of a dairy herd is whether 
to begin with pure-bred or grade cows. Opinions differ widely 
as to which is the more profitable. Pure-bred animals are much 
sought for breeding purposes ; their offspring are therefore more 
valuable and command a higher price than do the offspring of 
grades. Therefore, if the value of the calves is taken into con- 
sideration, a pure-bred herd is a more profitable one, other things 
being equal, than a grade herd. On the other hand, by the grad- 
ing-up process, that is, by continually selecting and breeding the 
cows that are the best producers to a pure-bred bull, it is entirely 
possible and by no means difficult to establish a herd of grade 



166 



Animal Husbandry 



cows that will equal in the production of milk any herd of pure- 
bred animals. If, therefore, milk-production alone is sought, a 
grade herd may produce as largely as a pure-bred. 

The enterprising and progressive owner will hardly be content 
with grades only. In the beginning his bull will be pure-bred ; 
presently he will want a pure-bred cow to match, then one or two 
more. Thus he will be steadily and properly working towards 
a pure-bred herd, and gaining in knowledge and experience at the 
same time. This will be found a much better plan, especially 
with the beginner or those unaccustomed to handling registered 
stock, than to purchase a pure-bred herd in the beginning. 



THE DAIRY BARN 



The dairy cow is perhaps the most difficult of farm animals 
to stable properly. The purpose for which she is kept, that of 
supplying milk; the use to which the milk is put, that of human 




Fig. 66. — Dairy barn and silos. 

food ; the raw condition in which it is used ; the place from 
which it is drawn, being exposed to greatest filth; the manner 
in which it is drawn, by hand and often by unclean milkmen ; 
and the condition of her manure, as well as the fact that if maxi- 
mum production is to be obtained, she must be fairly warmly 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 167 

housed, yet provided with an abundance of light and much fresh 
air ; — all serve to complicate the problem of providing suitable 
quarters for the dairy cow. 

There are certain fundamentals that should be provided in 
every building in which the dairy cow is stabled. Chief among 
these are light, ventilation, sufficient room, smooth and light walls 
and ceilings, a good floor, a comfortable and convenient stanchion 
and properly constructed mangers. 

277. Light in abundance should enter the dairy barn. — Sun- 
light is nature's disinfectant. With sufficient light and proper 
ventilation, germ diseases are not likely to occur. It is said that 
direct sunlight will kill the growing tuberculosis germ in a very 
few minutes. Hence, cattle kept in well-lighted and well-ven- 
tilated quarters are not so likely to contract this much dreaded 
disease. Again, light shows dirt and makes it easy to keep the 
barn clean. Dark stables are likely to be dusty or dirty and 
damp, thus providing conditions for germ growth. In addition 
to health, cleanliness, and the like, a barn in which the sun shines 
freely is a cheerful place in which to work. 

278. Ventilation essential to health. — The importance of 
pure air in a cow stable cannot be overestimated. It is essential 
to the well-being of the herd ; without it, disease will surely work 
destruction. While there are many methods of ventilating a 
dairy barn, the King system in some of its modified forms is ad- 
mitted to be the most efficient. If in addition the windows 
are arranged as suggested, p. 168, ample ventilation can be pro- 
cured. 

279. King's system of ventilation. — While there are many 
methods of arranging this system, it consists essentially of two 
parts : the inlets and the outlets, in the form of flues. This 
system will not work if the walls of the barn are full of cracks, or 
if the floor is made of loose boards. The floor, walls, ceilings, 
and windows must be so constructed as to prevent any large 
quantity of air from leaving or entering. 



168 Animal Husbandry 

The inlets may be so constructed as to meet two conditions : 
first, they must admit the fresh air near the ceiling, where the barn 
air is warm, in order that the fresh air may mingle with the warm- 
est air of the stable and raise the temperature before descending 
to the floor. In the second place, they must not permit the warm 
air to pass out instead of the cold fresh air to come in. This is 
accomplished by constructing the inlet flue so that it begins near 
the ground on the outside and ends near the ceiling on the inside. 
All that is necessary is to have the outer end of the flue several 
feet lower than the inner end. They should be placed on all four 
sides of the stable to take advantage of the wind. 

The outlets must be so constructed as to meet three conditions. 
First, the ventilators should reach nearly to the stable floor in 
order to remove the air from that point. This is desirable be- 
cause the refuse gases from the animals being heavier than the 
other air of the stable remain near the floor. The colder air is 
at the floor, and it is desirable to remove this, particularly in the 
winter, in order that the warmer air at the ceiling may move down- 
ward. In the second place, these ventilators should be provided 
with an opening near the ceiling for the removal of the warm air 
when the stable becomes too warm, particularly if the animals 
are to be kept in the stable most of the time. This open- 
ing must be provided with a door or slide to be closed or 
opened at will. In the third place, it is important that these 
ventilators be so constructed as to afford as little inconven- 
ience as possible, particularly when they extend through the 
hay loft, where they are sometimes in the way of the hay 
fork. The ventilating flue should be as large as convenient. 
The essentials of a good ventilating flue are similar to those 
of a good chimney. 

280. Window ventilation. — If it is not possible to install the 
King system in one of its many forms, the windows can be so ar- 
ranged as to form a fair system of ventilating the cow stable. 
To do this, hinge them at the bottom, allowing the top to open 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 



169 



inward. Place a board edgewise along each side of the window, 
so that the air will not enter at the bottom and blow directly on 
the animals when the window is open. By leaving several of the 
windows open an inch or two at the top, fair ventilation will be 




Fig. 67. 



Interior view of dairy barn, showing litter-carrier, cement floor, gutter, 
and arrangement of windows. 



provided without serious drafts. When this plan is employed, it 
is best to open the windows on the side of the barn away from the 
wind, and to regulate the size of the opening according to the 
severity of the weather. 

281. Floors are best made of cement. — While many objections 
have been raised to the use of cement, such as its cost, its being 



170 Animal Husbandry 

cold and damp, injuring the cattle and the like, it is nevertheless 
the most desirable material from which to construct floors for the 
cow stable. The gutters and mangers should likewise be laid in 
cement. Cement has two very great advantages over all other 
materials : it is easily kept clean, and if properly put down, is 
durable. If desired, plank may be laid over the cement where 
the cows stand. Cement may be made dry and fairly warm by 
placing a layer of some non-conducting material, such as building 
paper, an inch or so beneath the surface. 

282. The silo. — The silo has passed the experimental stage, and 
the economy as well as the practicability of preserving fodder in 
it has been fully demonstrated. Silage is a valuable food, and is 
relished by all classes of farm animals, but it is more particularly 
adapted to ruminating animals like cattle. 

The fundamental principle in the preservation of green forage 
placed in a silo, is the exclusion of air. To prevent the air 
from reaching the silage, the silo must be constructed with air- 
tight walls. These walls must be rigid enough to prevent spring- 
ing out of shape by the pressure of the silage, for in this case air 
will enter next to the wall. The pressure is greatest from the 
second to the sixth day after filling. The silage at this time 
begins to heat and settle, and if the walls are not sufficiently rigid 
to prevent any bulging, a considerable loss of silage is likely to 
result. The walls should be perpendicular, and the diameter the 
same from the bottom to the top. 

283. The size of the silo. — On being exposed to the air, silage 
spoils rapidly, and to avoid this it must be fed off at the rate of one 
and one-half to two inches daily in the winter, and three inches in 
the summer. A good plan is to construct the silo so that the 
horizontal feeding area for each cow will be approximately six 
square feet daily. If we feed six square feet off the top and two 
inches down, this means one cubic foot to the cow. The approxi- 
mate weight of a cubic foot of silage is forty pounds, though this 
varies much between the top and the bottom. 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 



171 



Approximate Capacity in Tons of Round Silos of Different Di- 
ameters and Depths and the Area required to fill them as 
well as the Amount that should be fed daily 



Inside • 
Diameter 

Feet 


Height 

Feet 


Capacity 
Tons 


Acreage to pill 
10 Tons to Acre 


Pounds that 

should be fed 

daily 


10 


28 


42 


4.2 


525 


10 


36 


61 


6.1 


525 


12 


30 


67 


6.7 


755 


12 


38 


94 


9.4 


755 


14 


30 


91 


9.1 


1030 


14 


38 


128 


12.8 


1030 


16 


30 


119 


11.9 


1340 


16 


42 


193 


19.3 


1340 


18 


36 


196 


19.6 


1700 


18 


46 


282 


28.2 


1700 


20 


36 


243 


24.3 


2100 


20 


50 


382 


38.2 


2100 


22 


36 


292 


29.2 


2300 


22 


50 


469 


46.9 


2300 



284. Filling the silo. — Occasionally the construction of a silo 
is criticised, whereas the fault may be found in the method of 
filling. It is essential to the preserving of silage that it be well 
packed, keeping it level and thoroughly tramped. This very 
important task is often intrusted to a lad who spends his time in 
standing in the breeze of the blower, with the result that the 
silage comes out of the silo somewhat molded the following winter. 



DISEASES OF CATTLE 



Cattle are very subject to certain diseases which render their 
usage for domestic purposes questionable. Milk from diseased 
cows, or meat from diseased carcasses, may endanger the lives of 
those who consume it. The sick cow should receive much care, as 



172 Animal Husbandry 

in many cases good care is to be preferred to the use of medicine, 
p. 89. 

285. Tuberculosis. — Perhaps no disease to which cattle are 
subject is more discussed than tuberculosis. This is due in 
large measure to the use of cattle to provide food for the hu- 
man race. There are perhaps few diseases so common among 
cattle as tuberculosis, particularly among those animals that are 
kept closely confined. 

Tuberculosis is a communicable germ disease, and is, therefore, 
preventable. The disease is caused by a small germ or bacterium 
known as Bacillus tuberculosis. This germ is, of course, invisible 
to the naked eye. 

286. Methods of infection. — As tuberculosis is a communi- 
cable germ disease, the methods of infection should receive much 
attention. This can be made clear by considering from two points 
of view : first, how the germs escape from diseased animals ; and 
second, how sound animals become infected. All diseased ani- 
mals possess the germ. This germ escapes when the tissues it 
has destroyed are being discharged from the body. Thus, if the 
lungs are affected, the animal on coughing dislodges the germs, 
which may be forced directly out of the body or lodged in the 
mouth, when they leave the body with the saliva. In the cases 
in which the germs are found in the saliva they are left in the 
watering troughs, on the bottom of the mangers, on the grass, on 
other animals when licked by diseased ones, and in fact spread 
wherever the diseased animal goes. 

When the germs have escaped into the watering troughs, man- 
gers, on the grass, and the like, they are readily taken up by healthy 
cattle. In case the germs escape in the milk, whatever feeds upon 
it is liable to infection. The length of time that will pass after 
infection and before the disease visibly appears varies widely, 
even to months or years. The length of time the animal may 
possess the disease varies equally as much. With some it may 
prove fatal in a few months ; others may carry it for years. 



Care and Management of Dairy Cattle 173 

287. Prevention of tuberculosis. — Since tuberculosis is a 
communicable germ disease, it is therefore preventable. If a 
herd is known to be healthy, never bring a new animal into the 
herd until it has been tested, and if there is the slightest suspicion 
that it is tubercular, it should be excluded. 



QUESTIONS 

1. How many dairy cattle are there in the United States ? How many 
in your state ? In your county ? How does your state rank with other 
states in the production of milk and butter ? How does your county rank 
with other counties of the state? Name the ten leading dairy states. 
Which state possesses the largest number of cattle to the square mile? 
To the farm ? 

2. Why are records of performance essential in herd improvement? 
In breeding, which is the more important, a record of performance or a pedi- 
gree? Are there any cow testing associations in your state? In your 
county ? Have they resulted in improvement ? 

3. In grading up a herd, when should the surplus calves be disposed of ? 
Which calves should be retained ? 

4. How young should a heifer freshen? What is the average age of 
a milk cow ? What percentage of the herd must be replaced each year 
in order to keep the number uniform ? 

5. At what period of life does a cow give her maximum yield of milk ? 
Does an old cow give milk with a higher percentage of fat than a young 



one 



6. In testing milk with a centrifuge tester, why is it that the fat rises 
to the top ? Why will milk keep sweet longer at a low temperature than 
at a high? Why does milk sour? Why does pasteurization of milk 
increase its keeping qualities ? How do bacteria get into milk ? 

7. How is sanitary milk produced ? Are there any sanitary farms in 
your county ? How much do they get for their product ? 

8. Are there any milking machines in use in your county ? How long 
does it take the machine to milk four cows yielding an average of six 
quarts each ? Does it milk the animals clean ? How long would it take 
a good hand milker to milk a cow yielding six quarts ? Wherein lies the 



174 Animal Husbandry 

advantage of the machine ? Which milk contains the most fat, that drawn 
first or last ? 

9. Why is it essential that the floor and walls be tight when the King 
ventilating system is used? Why should the dairy barn be warm, well 
lighted and well ventilated ? 

10. Why should the silo be air tight ? Which is the more desirable, a 
high, narrow silo or a low, wide one ? Why ? Why should silage be well 
packed ? 



CHAPTER X 

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 

Feeding beef cattle differs considerably from feeding dairy 
cattle. The production of milk is largely an independent in- 
dustry because of the fact that successful dairymen have time 
for little if anything else ; whereas beef production is not a special 
industry and does not require all of the farmer's time, and on the 
average is conducted successfully only in connection with grain 
farming. Successful beef producers regard beef-raising as* a con- 
venient way of marketing grain, as well as a means of conserving 
soil fertility, and also a profitable means of utilizing coarse forage 
which otherwise would be largely wasted. 

ESSENTIALS OF FEEDING CATTLE 

In considering cattle with a view of estimating their profit 
as beef producers, there are a number of essentials to be taken into 
account. Chief among these are the age, form, condition, quality, 
uniformity, and the price. 

288. Age at which to feed cattle. — - To secure some idea of 
the age at which gains can be made most cheaply, let us examine 
the composition of the body of an old and a young steer : — 





Water 
Per Cent 


Ash 
Per Cent 


Protein 
Per Cent 


Fat 

Per Cent 


Aged fat steer 

Fat calf 


49.5 
64.6 


4.4 

4.8 


15.6 
16.5 


30.5 
14.1 



175 



176 Animal Husbandry 

This would seem to indicate that the aged steer in fattening 
required considerably more solid food, particularly those foods 
rich in fat, whereas the calf requires less fat, and less dry-matter 
to the pound of gain. As water is cheaper than fat we would 
expect the calf to make the cheaper gains, and such is the case. 
Not only does the age influence the cheapness of the gains, but it 
affects the rate of gain as well. The younger animal having the 
advantage. 

289. Form for feeding cattle. — The form of the steers should 
be such as to meet two conditions : those demanded by the cattle 
feeder, and those demanded by the butcher. The cattle feeder 
wishes an animal that will make rapid and economical gains 
in the feed lot, while the butcher wishes one that will dress a 
relatively high percentage of edible meat, particularly of the 
high-priced cuts, such as prime of rib, porterhouse, sirloin, rump, 
and round, which are taken from the back, loin, rump, and quar- 
ters. In general the form that best fills these conditions will be 
low set, deep, broad, and compact, rather than high up, gaunt, 
narrow, loosely made. 

Cattle possessing such a form are likely to prove rapid and 
economic producers while in the feed lot, thus making a profit 
for the feeder, and when slaughtered to dress a relatively high 
percentage of edible meat, particularly of the high-priced cuts. 
Such an animal should dress out 55 to 60 per cent or better 
with approximately one-half of the edible meat in the region 
of the valuable cuts, and this will sell for about 75 per cent 
of the value of the entire carcass, leaving the other half from 
the region of low-priced meat to bring the other 25 per cent 
of the valuation. 

290. Condition of feeding cattle. — In considering steers to 
feed, their condition should be carefully scrutinized from two points 
of view : their thrift, and the amount of flesh they possess. Feed- 
ing cattle should be thrifty but not coarse. On the other hand, 
too much refinement is likely to prove disappointing, as it often 



Feeding Beef Cattle 



177 



means delicacy or lack of thrift, and no animal lacking in thrift 
should find its way into the feed lot. 

To make rapid and economic feeders the cattle should not 
possess much flesh at the beginning of the feeding period. The 
thinner the steer at the beginning of the feeding process, the more 
rapid and economical gains it will make, provided there is no 
lack of thrift. If we examine the bodies of the thin and fat steer, 
it may give us an insight as to why the animal gains in flesh more 
rapidly and on less feed when in a thin condition : — 





Water 
Per Cent 


Ash 
Per Cent 


Protein 
Per Cent 


Fat 
Per Cent 


Thin steer 

Fat steer 


66.2 
49.5 


5.9 
4.4 


19.2 
15.6 


8.7 
30.5 



The body of the thin steer contains a relatively high amount of 
water and low fat, whereas the fat steer's body contains a relatively 
small amount of water and high fat content. This may have a 
bearing on the fact that a thin steer gains more rapidly and on 
less feed than a fat one, and also on the fact that as the full feed- 
ing proceeds the gains are made less rapidly and require more feed. 

291. Quality of feeding cattle. — Quality should be considered 
from two points of view : general quality, and handling quality. 
By general quality is meant that general refinement of external 
form found in the neat head, fine horn, dense bone, smooth out- 
line, and compact body. This quality is affected by nothing so 
much as breeding. General quality and good breeding are closely 
associated, well-bred animals being likely to possess quality, 
whereas it is often wanting in the common-bred steers. The im- 
portance of general quality in feeding cattle cannot be over es- 
timated, as steers possessing it will give higher profit to both 
the cattle feeder and the butcher, not because such animals will 
necessarily make more meat from a given amount of food, but 



178 Animal Husbandry 

because they will dress out better and bring a higher price on the 
market. 

Good handling quality indicates that the steer is a good feeder. 
By good handling quality is meant a fine, silky hair and a loose, 
mellow skin. These are associated with thrift and the ability to 
take on flesh rapidly and economically, whereas a heavy, stiff hide 
is considered to indicate slower fattening. 

292. Uniformity in feeding cattle. — Feeding cattle should be 
uniform in age, weight, color, type or form, condition, breeding, 
and quality. Since young steers gain more rapidly than aged 
ones, and aged steers fatten more rapidly than young ones, it is 
not likely that a lot of steers of mixed ages would all be ready to 
market at the same time. If some of the animals are fat, while 
others are only half fat, they will not command as high a price on 
the market as though they were uniform in flesh. Not only must 
they be uniform in flesh, but they must be approximately uniform 
in weight, if the highest price is to be obtained. Butchers and 
packers desire cattle uniform in weight, so that the cuts of meat 
will run uniform, as their trade demands. While uniformity of 
color does not add to. the animal's capacity to take on flesh eco- 
nomically or to his ability to dress out well, yet the butchers desire 
such similarity and are willing to pay for it. The cattle should be 
uniform in type or form. If they vary in type, the weight of the 
cuts of meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects. 
The butcher also demands animals equal in condition and quality, 
to meet the demands of his trade calls. 

293. Food requirements for beef. — The quantity of food re- 
quired to fatten a beef animal depends on many factors, chief of 
which are the kind of food, the age, weight, and condition as well 
as the individuality of the animal. 

No definite quantities can be given that will apply to all ani- 
mals, to all conditions, and to all foods. The standards furnish 
us a guide to be modified by the judgment and experience of the 
feeder : — 



Feeding Beef Cattle 



179 



Wolff-Lehman Standard, showing the Amount of Food required 
per 1000 Pounds Live Weight for both the Growing and Fatten- 
ing Beef Animal 



Condition of Animal 




Digestive Nutrients 






Dry- 
Matter 










Growing Cattle 
Beef Breeds 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Ratio 


Age, Mo. 

2-3 


Weight 

160 


23 


4.2 


13.0 


2.0 


1:4.2 


3-6 


330 


24 


3.5 


12.8 


1.5 


1:4.7 


6-12 


550 


25 


2.5 


13.2 


0.7 


1:6.0 


12-18 


750 


24 


2,0 


12.5 


0.5 


1:6.8 


18-24 

Fattenin 

First period 
Second perio 
Third perioc 


950 

g Cattle 

d" '. '. '. 


24 

30 
30 
26 


1.8 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 


12.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 


0.4 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 


1:7.2 

1 : 6.5 
1:5.4 
1:6.2 



Armsby's Standard, showing the Digestible Protein and Energy 
required per 1000 Pounds Live Weight for a Growing Steer 
of Various Ages and Weights 



Age, Months 


Weight, Pounds 


Digestible Protein, 
Pounds 


Energy Value, 
Therms 


6 


425 


3.0 


14.3 


12 


650 


2.5 


10.7 


18 


850 


2.0 


8.8 


24 


1000 


1.7 


8.0 


30 


1100 


1.5 


7.3 



294. Wintering stockers and feeders. — Large numbers of 
feeding cattle are purchased in fall and early winter for the special 
purpose of economically disposing of such roughage as corn stalks, 
straw stack, second-class clover hay, clover chaff after the seed 
has been removed, and the like. Wintering cattle with a view to 
fattening the following summer on pasture is a very convenient 
way of converting such feeds into cash. 



180 Animal Husbandry 

While different systems of feeding might undoubtedly be rec- 
ommended for cattle of various ages and quality, there are at 
least three conditions that should be kept clearly in mind : first, 
cattle wintered on roughage alone, provided they retain their 
thrift, will make more economical beef producers the following 
summer on pasture than when they receive grain along with the 
roughage; second, cattle wintered on a too liberal grain ration 
may fail to make a profit the following summer on pasture ; and 
third, other things being equal, cattle wintered on a ration contain- 
ing a liberal supply of protein, particularly if this protein is con- 
tained in the roughage, as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea hay, will 
make greater and more economical gains during both winter and 
summer than if this nitrogenous roughage is wanting. 

295. Roughage increases feeding capacity. — It is conceded 
by experienced cattle feeders that roughing steers preparatory 
to putting them on full feed requires much skill. The feeding of 
an abundance of roughage encourages the enlargement and develop- 
ment of the digestive organs, thus increasing the capacity for 
handling more concentrated feeds later on. This, of course, gives 
the thin animal a large paunch, which must certainly be reduced 
before the animal is ready for market. A large-paunched steer 
is not wanted on any fat-cattle market. Therefore, in the early 
part of the feeding process, the enlarging of the paunch should be 
encouraged in order to increase the capacity, while the latter part 
of the feeding period should be devoted to reducing this paunch 
and smoothing up the steer. 

SUMMER FEEDING ON PASTURE 

Fattening cattle in the summer on pasture is usually more prof- 
itable than winter fattening. By such feeding the labor is re- 
duced to a minimum, there is no handling of bulky foods, no 
bedding to provide, no lots to clean of manure, and no outlay for 
an extensive plant, such as sheds, lots, and the like. 



Feeding Beef Cattle 181 

296. Methods of summer feeding. — There are two methods 
of fattening beef cattle on pasture : pasturing alone with no grain, 
Which is called " grass fattening " ; and feeding grain, often all 
they will eat, in connection with the pasturage. Which of these 
methods should be employed will depend on conditions. When 
land is cheap and there is an abundance of pasture, one may secure 
fairly good returns from pasturing without grain. On the other 
hand, if the pasture is limited, the land high in price, and one has 
the grain, no doubt it will be more profitable to feed grain in con- 
nection with the pasture. While cheaper gains can usually be 
made from pasturing alone, the cattle cannot, as a rule, be made 
very fat, and hence will not command a high price on the market, 
a drawback which offsets the advantage of cheap gains. There are, 
however, many experienced cattle feeders who rely on grass fatten- 
ing, particularly on the edge of the corn-belt. Cattle feeders in 
the corn-belt will, as a rule, secure greater returns from a liberal 
grain feed in connection with the pasture. 

297. How to turn to grass. — As cattle are very subject to bloating 
if turned to succulent grass, especially if it is wet with dew or 
rain, much care should be exercised. This is particularly true 
when they are turned to clover or alfalfa. If it is convenient, one 
should turn the cattle out for an hour or so in the afternoon and 
then take them up for the day, turning them out the following 
day at noon and leaving a few hours longer, then taking them up 
again, when on the third day they may be allowed to remain. 

298. Feeding grain to cattle on pasture. — The amount and kind 
of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle on pasture will 
depend much on the previous treatment, age, condition, and 
quality of the cattle, as well as the time of marketing them. Young 
stock, that are to be made thick fat, will need grain continually 
throughout the summer. Older cattle, that are not intended for 
market until fall, may well have their grain withheld until the 
pasture begins to get short, say along in July. Many cattle 
feeders prefer to "warm the cattle up " in the feed lot before going 



182 



Animal Husbandry 



to grass, and then to finish them on pasture, disposing of them 
by the middle of July, before the hottest of the weather, and just 
about the time the pasture begins to fail. Under this system it 
would be necessary to feed grain liberally from the beginning of 
the pasture season. 

There is difference of opinion as to the kind of grain that should 
be fed cattle of the various ages on pasture. In some cases per- 
haps corn alone cannot be improved on, particularly if there is 




Fig. 68. — Fattening steers on pasture. Feeding clover hay to supplement the 

pasture. 



leguminous grass, as clover or alfalfa, in the pasture. With young 
stock, however, it is advisable to supplement corn with a food rich 
in protein, as linseed or cotton-seed meal. 

299. The pastures. — There are two general plans for providing 
pasture land : permanent pastures ; and pastures in rotation with 
other crops. No definite suggestions can be given as to the choice 
between these further than to say that all depends on the location. 



Feeding Beef Cattle 183 

If those farms or parts of farms that are unsuited for growing 
grains can be laid to permanent pasture, it will, on the average, be 
profitable to do so. Each of these systems has certain advan- 
tages. For example, permanent pasture simplifies the fencing, 
provides the water supply, the shade, and the feed racks or bunks, 
while pastures in rotation give a much better opportunity to dis- 
tribute the manure to all parts of the farm. Permanent pastures, 
even if seriously affected by drouth, are not likely to be a failure, 
while pastures in rotation occasionally do fail. Properly managed 
permanent pastures will increase in value with age. 

The pasture crop is perhaps the most neglected of crops. With 
proper management it can be improved. First, secure a good 
stand ; second, keep down the weeds ; third, drain pasture land 
well ; fourth, top-dress permanent pastures with manure when con- 
venient ; and fifth, do not turn to pasture too early in the spring, 
as this hinders the growth of the young plants before they get a 
start. 

WINTER FEEDING IN DRY-LOT 

While feeding steers in the summer time on pasture may be 
the most profitable for those cattle feeders possessing the pasture, 
there are many farms, especially in the corn-belt, lacking in pasture 
and yet possessing an abundance of grain and dry forage that the 
farmer desires to convert into beef. On such farms winter feed- 
ing in the dry-lot is the common practice. This system of feeding 
beef cattle is not without its advantages. For example, the feed- 
ing is done at a time of year when there is little other work, and if 
the cattle are measurably protected from the wind and rain, they 
suffer less from the weather than from the heat and troublesome 
flies of summer. When the steers are purchased in the fall and 
fattened during the winter, the cattle feeder has his money tied 
up a much shorter period, resulting in correspondingly, quicker 
returns. Such a system affords a very convenient method of 
converting the previous crop, grain and dry forage, into ready cash 



184 Animal Husbandry 

to finance the farm the coming season, as the steers are marketed 
and out of the way before farm work begins in the spring. 

300. Feeding grain to cattle in the dry-lot. — The amount and 
kind of grain that should be fed to fattening cattle in the dry-lot 
will depend much on the age, condition, and quality of the cattle 
as well as upon the kind of dry forage. Young stock will need 
a heavy grain ration from start to finish if they are to be made 
fat, whereas older cattle may be fed grain rather sparingly at 
first, gradually increasing to a full grain feed sixty days before 
marketing. 

The amount of grain that can be fed economically to fattening 
cattle depends much on the kind of dry forage. On the average, 
animals receiving a leguminous forage, such as clover, alfalfa, or 
cowpea hay, will make economical use of a larger grain ration than 
when other forage, such as timothy, red-top, corn stalks, and the 
like, is fed. In fact, fattening farm animals will make more econom- 
ical use of a larger grain ration if the grain also contains a high 
percentage of protein. The length of the fattening period will 
also have much to do with the amount of grain that should be 
fed. If it is intended to market the steers in 100 days or less, 
they will have to be full-fed grain from the beginning if they 
are to be made reasonably fat, whereas if the feeding period is to 
last 150 days or more, the cattle may be fed grain rather spar- 
ingly at first. 

The kind of grain to feed fattening cattle likewise depends 
largely on the cattle and the kind of dry roughage. When rather 
young steers are being fattened, it is the common opinion that a 
more nitrogenous ration should be used; whereas in the case of 
older and more mature cattle the grain ration often contains less 
protein. The kind of roughage determines, in part, the kind 
of grain that should be fed. When the cattle are being fed a dry 
roughage containing much protein, as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea 
hay, the grain may contain a correspondingly less amount of protein. 
On the other hand, when the dry forage lacks the protein, the de- 



Feeding Beef Cattle 185 

ficiency should be made up by feeding a grain rich in protein, as 
cotton-seed or linseed meal. In addition, the length of the fatten- 
ing period will have an influence on the kind of grain to feed. If 
the period is short, it will be necessary to feed very fattening foods, 
such as corn and cotton-seed meal, from the beginning ; whereas 
if the cattle are to be fed 150 days or more, they may be given 
foods containing less fat during the early stages of the feeding 
period. 

301. Baby-beef. — By baby-beef is meant fat cattle between 
one and two years of age and weighing from 800 to 1100 pounds. 
First of all, the cattle must be young. They must be well bred 
and of fine quality, as such cattle can be finished for the market 
at a much younger age than the plainer kinds. The cattle to be 
used in the production of baby-beef should not be permitted to 
lose their calf fat. 

302. Feeding for baby-beef production. — If young animals are 
to be made fat, they must be fed liberally on fat-producing feeds, 
particular^ grain. Heavier grain feeding is required in the pro- 
duction of baby-beef than of older beef. Calves and yearlings 
have a tendency to grow rather than to fatten, and to overcome 
this they must be fed a heavy ration of grain, a fact not to be lost 
sight of in figuring the cost. In the beginning the calf should be 
fed considerable quantities of dry forage, such as clover, alfalfa, 
or cowpea hay, as such foods have a tendency to increase the di- 
gestive capacity of the calf, thereby enabling it to handle large 
quantities of grain later on. If heifer calves instead of steers are 
fed, they will finish more quickly and hence should be marketed 
earlier. The younger the prime heifers are at the time of the 
marketing, the less discrimination in price the butcher will make 
between them and steers. 

303. Sample rations for fattening cattle. — The following rations 
furnish a guide in determining the kind and quantity of feed that 
should be allowed fattening cattle. They apply to 1000 pounds 
live weight : — 



186 



Animal Husbandry 



Age and 


Ration 


Food per 
Pound Gain 


Cattle 


Grain 


Dry Forage 


Grain 


Dry 

Forage 


Calves 
457 lb. 


22 lb. shelled corn 
3 lb. cotton-seed meal 


12 lb. clover hay 


5.9 


2.9 


Calves 
534 lb. 


18 lb. shelled corn 

2.5 lb. cotton-seed meal 


5 lb. clover hay 
18 lb. corn silage 


5.8 


1.4 » 

5.3 2 


Yearlings 
854 lb. 


19 lb. shelled corn 

2.5 lb. cotton-seed meal 


4.5 lb. clover hay 
18 lb. corn silage 


7.9 

7.7 


1.7 x 

6.8 2 


Yearlings 
808 lb. 


19 lb. shelled corn 


11 lb. alfalfa hay 


4.7 


Two years 
1010 lb. 


16 lb. shelled corn 
3 lb. cotton-seed meal 


4 lb. clover hay 
15 lb. corn silage 


7.6 
4.7 


1.5 l 

5.8 2 


Two years 
979 lb. 


10 lb. snapped corn 


12 lb. prairie hay 
10 lb. alfalfa hay 


10.5 


Two years 
893 lb. 


20 lb. ear corn 


10 lb. clover hay 


9.5 


4.0 


Two years 
1017 lb. 


18 lb. shelled corn 


7 lb. timothy hay 


9.3 


3.4 



Clover hay. 



2 Corn silage. 



Sample Rations for wintering Cattle with no Attempt to fatten 

them 



Weight of 


Ration for Each Steer 


Gain 


Cattle 


Grain 


Dry Forage 


Lb. 


736 lb. 


none 


16 lb. timothy hay 


0.4 


707 lb. 


none 


20 lb. whole cornstalks 


0.2 


743 lb. 


none 


44 lb. corn silage 


1.0 


788 lb. 


none 


20 lb. cowpea hay 


0.5 


767 lb. 


4 lb. shelled corn 


9 lb. cornstalks 
9 lb. clover hay 


0.9 


783 lb. 


4 lb. shelled corn 


19 lb. cowpea hay 


1.5 


i 


6 lb. shelled corn 


17 lb. timothy hay 


1.4 




6 lb. shelled corn 


19 lb. clover hay 


1.9 



Weight approximately as above. 



Feeding Beef Cattle 187 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do the Wolff-Lehman and Armsby standards compare in re- 
spect to the protein required for the growing animal? Why this differ- 
ence ? Which of these requirements meets your conditions ? 

2. Which requires the more protein, beef production or milk produc- 
tion? How much protein would there be in the flesh of a steer gain- 
ing two pounds per day ? Compare with the dairy cow yielding thirty 
pounds of milk. 

3. Why does a young steer gain more economically than an old one? 
A thin one more than a fat one ? One of good form more than one of 
poor form ? And one of good quality more than one of poor quality ? 

4. How should the following lots of cattle be wintered, if intended for 
fattening the following summer : calves, fancy yearlings, fancy heifers, 
inferior steers, and common cows ? 

5. Assuming that it is desired to market the first of October, how should 
the above lots be fed, if they have the range of a good blue grass pasture ? 

6. Is there as much permanent pasture land in your county as formerly ? 
Why? What grasses constitute the pasture? How many animals will 
ten acres support ? How can this be increased ? 

7. Why is baby-beef popular with the butchers ? Under what con- 
ditions is baby-beef the most profitable for the farmer ? Why do farmers 
who buy their cattle prefer to feed older ones ? 

8. Are the beef cattle of your vicinity raised in the county or are they 
shipped into it for fattening ? Where do they come from ? 

9. Why should considerable time be taken to put range cattle on full 
feed ? Why do these cattle often refuse grain, especially at first ? 

10. Approximately how many carloads of fat cattle are shipped from 
your county annually ? Where do they go ? 



CHAPTER XI 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE 

To be successful in the production of beef cattle, we must have 
due regard for regularity in all matters pertaining to the care 
and management of the cattle. This applies particularly to feed- 
ing and watering. Cattle anticipate the hour of feeding and 
become nervous if it is long delayed ; they bellow, coax, and be- 
come much excited, all of which must be avoided if beef is to be 
produced economically. 

304. Plan of improvement. — Before deciding upon a plan of 
breeding beef cattle, one should visit farms where beef cattle are 
successfully bred, noting conditions and comparing them with his 
own. Such improvement as he may be able to bring about must be 
upon the common native cattle of the community. To dispose of 
the native cattle and purchase well-bred uniform cattle would be 
very expensive and in most cases very unprofitable. The task is 
then to adopt some plan of breeding that will result in an improve- 
ment of the native stock. In most cases this can be most profit- 
ably accomplished by the grading-up process ; that is, by the use 
of pure-bred bulls on the native common females. 

305. Cooperative grading-up. — A very successful plan to im- 
prove the beef-producing qualities of the cattle of a locality is by 
the cooperative grading-up method. The formation of beef- 
breeding associations throughout a given locality would do much 
to advance the progress of the industry, p. 164. 

306. Raise heifer calves from best cows. — Because of the 
excellency of the heifer calves from the good cows, the cattle feeder 
is tempted to fatten them for beef. This should not be done. 

188- 



Care and Management of Beef Cattle 189 

They should be reserved for breeding purposes. Many cattle 
breeders are actually reducing the quality of their beef-producing 
herd by fattening the best calves and reserving the poorer ones 
for breeding because they will not make good feeders. 

307. Farms for fattening cattle. — While cattle feeding may 
be conducted on any farm, there are two general types of farms 
on which it is likely to prove more profitable. First, grain farms 
that grow large quantities of dry forage incidental to the grain, 
which would be otherwise wasted ; second, pasture farms, where 
for some reason grain cannot be successfully grown and where the 
land is suitable for pasture. 



EQUIPMENT FOR SUMMER FEEDING 

In considering the profits likely to result from steer feeding, 
among the' first items to be taken into account is the equipment. 
While the equipment for beef-production is not nearly as extensive 
as for milk-production, there are, nevertheless, a few necessities 
to be provided. Since the equipment for summer feeding on 
pasture differs from that of winter feeding in the dry-lot, each will 
be considered separately. 

308. Pasture. — The importance of properly managed pastures 
cannot be overestimated. The general management, such as 
the importance of a good stand of grass ; of keeping down the 
weeds ; of providing suitable drainage ; of top dressing with 
barnyard manure when convenient ; and of not turning to pasture 
too early in the spring, is very important. 

309. Feed-bunk. — While any kind of durable box or trough, 
slightly elevated, may be used in feeding grain, a feed-bunk will 
prove the most efficient. These feed-bunks are three feet wide, 
fifteen feet long, inside dimension, and two and one-half feet high. 
One bunk of the dimensions given will be sufficient to accom- 
modate fifteen to twenty cattle, depending on their size. Any kind 
of lumber may be used, but oak is most durable and will make 



190 Animal Husbandry 

a stronger bunk. Such a bunk can be moved from place to 
place. 

310. Self-feeder. — This is a feed box or bin holding a large 
amount of grain and so arranged that part of the grain is accessible 
to the cattle at all times. The great advantage stated for self- 
feeders is that they save labor. They have been used with vary- 
ing success, some cattle feeders using them continuously, others 

. using them one or two years and then abandoning them. In 
some localities the self-feeder is common, in others it is not 
known. 

311. Shades. — When there are trees in the pastures, the 
matter of shade need receive no attention, but in the absence of 
natural shade, some provision should be made for it especially 
during the hot, dry weather when the flies are troublesome. Droves 
of fattening cattle occasionally become so excited, due to the ex- 
cessive heat and flies, that they bunch up or stampede and some- 
times injure one another. 

312. Water. — Fattening cattle must be supplied with an abun- 
dance of fresh water at all times. Many pastures throughout 
the country are not thus supplied. As a rule beef cannot be pro- 
duced economically on such farms. The hotter and dryer the 
weather, the more water the cattle need, and this is just the time 
when there is likely to be a shortage. In the absence of running 
water, perhaps the most efficient source is a good well, equipped 
with a wind pump. When the water is pumped by hand and the 
drove of cattle large, the water supply is likely to be deficient. 
It is also important that the water be fresh and clean. Hot, stale, 
and muddy water, laden with mosquito larvae and other im- 
purities, is not fit for cattle to drink. Something better than mud- 
holes should be supplied. 

313. Salt. — This should either be kept before the feeding 
cattle at all times or supplied them regularly twice each week. 
A very good plan is to cut a common salt barrel in two at the mid- 
dle and place one-half where the cattle can have free access to it. 
This should be under a shed, as rain dissolves the salt. 



Care and Management of Beef Cattle 191 



EQUIPMENT FOR WINTER FEEDING 

The equipment for feeding cattle in the winter deserves special 
attention ; not that it is difficult or expensive but that the proper 
kind of equipment is often neglected and much money expended 
for items that are not only unnecessary but positively objection- 
able. The most particular item is that of efficient shelter. Other 
items are the feed-lot and its location, the racks from which to 
feed dry forage, and the like. 

314. Shelter for winter feeding. — While it is essential to pro- 
vide warm winter quarters for the dairy cow, because she is thin 
in flesh and because of the nature of her product, such warm 
quarters are not necessary for the fattening steer. The fatten- 
ing steer possesses a coat of fat or flesh which serves to protect 
him from the cold, and when on full feed the heat generated 
in the body by masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food 
is sufficient to maintain the body temperature. No doubt the 
needs of the fattening animal are such as to make a reasonable 
amount of cold air beneficial rather than detrimental. But it is 
very desirable that the fattening steer be kept dry and provided 
with a comfortable dry bed. Dry quarters are far more important 
than warm quarters. A structure which protects the animals 
from the rain and snow and provides them with a dry comfortable 
bed is sufficient. 

315. The feed-lot. — Relatively too little attention is given the 
feed-lot. In choosing the location of the lot, consideration should 
be given to drainage and the natural protection. A south slope 
is the most desirable, as the water will drain off quickly after a rain, 
and the full benefit of the sun's rays will be received. A muddy 
lot is one of the greatest objections to winter feeding. Over much 
of the grain belt the soil is rather impervious to water, which is 
held at the surface.' The cattle in walking mix the water with the 
soil, which is often clay, thus making a most disagreeable mud. 

The only known corrective for such lots is to pave them, at 



192 Animal Husbandry 

least in part, particularly where the animals must lie and where 
the feed-bunks and racks are placed. For this purpose various 
materials are used, chiefly cobblestones, bricks, cement, and plank. 
Before laying the pavement a grade should be established slightly 
higher than the surrounding surface, to eliminate the surface 
water. The grade should have a slope of at least one inch to six 
feet. 

316. Platform for feed-bunks. — On soils that are porous and 
from which the water drains off rapidly, the mud gives little incon- 
venience except about the feed-bunks, dry-forage-racks, and water- 
tank. About these and extending back six feet, may be placed 
a few loads of coarse gravel or, better still, a pavement similar to 
that described above, or a plank platform. Whatever the material 
used in construction, it should be so arranged that the farmer 
may drive alongside the bunk or rack with a load of feed. 

317. Dry-forage-rack. — ■ It is not advisable to have the feed- 
bunks and the dry-forage-racks combined, since the litter from the 
dry forage falling upon the grain renders it distasteful to cattle, 
particularly when on a full grain ration. Neither is it advisable 
to construct such racks under the shed except where the climate 
is very disagreeable, though they should be placed to the south 
of the shed or. barn to protect them measurably from the winds 
and driving storms. The form and shape of the dry-forage-racks 
will depend on the condition in which dry forage is fed, cornstalks 
calling for one form, hay for another, and chopped hay or shredded 
fodder for still another. As these racks are likely to be permanent, 
they should be constructed to meet the particular conditions 
under which they are to be used. 

318. Water-tanks. — When the water-tanks are not too large, 
a very good way to prevent freezing, except in very severe weather, 
is to encase the tank in a box or frame and fill this frame with 
litter from the horse stable. The frame should be so constructed 
as to permit the use of a layer of this manure at least one foot thick 
all around the tank. 



Care and Management of Beef Cattle 193 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many beef cattle are there in the United States? How many 
in your state ? In your county ? How does your state rank with other 
states in the production of beef ? How does your county rank with other 
counties of the state? Name the ten leading beef-producing states. 
Which state possesses the largest number to the square mile? To the 
farm? 

2. Why has the quality of beef-producing animals deteriorated during 
the past decade, especially throughout the principal agricultural states ? 
If this condition continues where are we to get our beef supply ? 

3. In selecting breeding stock to improve the quality of our beef, what 
are the essential factors to be considered ? Why is cooperative breeding 
of advantage ? 

4. Why is summer feeding on pasture likely to be more profitable than 
winter feeding in the dry lot ? 

5. Why is a warm barn objectionable as winter quarters for fat- 
tening steers? Why do fat cattle differ from dairy cattle in this 
respect ? 

6. When a farmer buys cattle and fattens them, how much above the 
purchase price per hundred pounds must he obtain to make a profit?* 
What is this difference called ? What factors influence it ? 

7. When is a fat steer ready for the market ? What changes take place 
in his flesh if he is held too long after being finished ? 

8. Which is the best season of the year to market steers in your vi- 
cinity? How much does the local buyer deduct for "drift," when he 
purchases the cattle at the farm ? 

9. Name the ten largest beef cattle markets in the United States. 
How many cattle are handled at each annually ? 

10. Name the more common diseases of cattle. Give symptoms of 
each. Why is tuberculosis so common among cattle? How can it be 
stamped out ? 

11. How much does your local butcher pay for the cattle he slaughters ? 
How much will the animals lose in dressing ? How much does the butcher 
charge for the beef ? Approximately what are his profits on a steer that 
weighs 1000 pounds alive ? What are some of the other products upon 
which the butcher realizes besides the beef ? 



194 Animal Husbandry 

12. Approximately what percentage of the live steer is edible ? What 
percentage of the dressed carcass is edible ? 

13. Compare the economic food-production of beef .and dairy cattle. 
Find out the exact amount of food consumed, and the exact amount of 
milk produced by a good cow for one year. Calculate the amount of 
milk produced for each 100 pounds of food consumed. From some beef- 
feeding experiment, calculate the number of pounds gained by the animal 
for each 100 pounds of food consumed. Which produces human food 
more economically, the dairy cow or the beef animal ? 

14. On the basis of food consumed, at what price per pound must beef 
retail in order to be as remunerative as milk retailing at five cents per 
quart ? Has this a bearing upon the increasing popularity of the dairy 
cow and the decreasing popularity of the beef animal ? 

15. Wherein has the beef animal the advantage of the dairy cow ? In 
what particular sections of the country is beef production likely to 
remain a profitable industry ? Explain. 



PART THREE — SHEEP 




1 






^^r«^ „* 




Fig. 69. — Points of the 


sheep. 




1. Muzzle. 


11. Shoulder vein. 




21. Fore flank. 


2. Mouth. 


12. Shoulder top. 




22. Belly. 


3. Nostril. 


13. Shoulder. 




23. Hind flank. 


4. Lips. 


14. Arm. 




24. Rump. 


5. Nose. 


15. Brisket. 




25. Leg of mutton. 


6. Face. 


16. Fore leg. 




27. Dock. 


7. Forehead. 


17. Back. 




28. Twist. 


8. Eye. 


18. Loin. 




29. Hind leg. 


9. Ear. 


19. Hip. 






10. Neck. 


20. Ribs. 







196 



CHAPTER XII 

BREEDS OF SHEEP 

There are two distinct types of sheep : the wool type, adapted 
for the production of wool, and the mutton type, adapted for 
the production of meat. These types are controlled to a consider- 
able extent by the demands made upon the body of the animal. 
Thus in the case of wool production as much skin surface as possible 
is desired, and the skin is thrown into folds. On the other hand, 




Fig. 70. — Merino ram. Class A. 

in the mutton type the carcass is the product, and a plump, full body 
is desired. The energy of the food should go to the production 
of mutton and not of wool. These two types, therefore, are of 

197 



198 



Animal Husbandry 




Fig. 71. — Merino ram. Class B. 



necessity widely different, and one can no more expect maximum 
wool production and maximum mutton production in the same 
sheep than he can have greatest milk flow and greatest yield of 
beef in the same cow. 

319. The fine-wool type. — This type may be compared to that 
of the dairy cow. The body is spare, lacking in fullness, in breadth 

of back, and in general thickness 
'^ , throughout. The wool is rather 

;,^\y^ V^., short, very thick over the entire 

body, and exceedingly fine. 

There are three classes of fine- 
wool sheep, grouped according to 
the folds or wrinkles on the neck and 
body. By common consent these 
forms are distinguished by letter as 
follows : Class A . — Merino, repre- 
senting those with heavy folds at the neck and over the body and 
hindquarters, and possessing an abundance of yolk or grease 
(Fig. 70). Class B. — Merino, rep- 
resenting those with fewer and 
smaller folds on neck and body, 
and carrying less yolk in the wool 
(Fig. 71). Class C. — Merino, rep- 
resenting those with comparatively 
smooth bodies, possessing less yolk 
than Class B, though the wool is, as 
a rule, somewhat longer (Fig. 72). 
Of the three classes A is perhaps the 
heaviest shearer, a case being re- 
ported of an animal shearing 36 per 
cent of his gross weight. 

320. The mutton type. — In form, this type resembles beef cattle. 
The animals are low-set, compact, and blocky in appearance. This 
type is uniformly covered with a smooth, deep layer of high-class 




Fig. 72. — Merino ram. Class C. 



Breeds of Sheep 



199 



mutton, without wads of fat or patchiness on sides or rump. The 
fleece covering is exceedingly variable in length and fineness. 

Sometimes sheep are classified according to the quality and 
length of the wool, in which case we have the fine-wool type, noted 
for the fineness of the fleece, the coarse-wool type, so called be- 
cause of the coarse fiber of wool, and the long-wool type, noted 
for the length of the fleece. The coarse-wool and the long-wool 
correspond with the mutton type (Fig. 75) . 

THE FINE-WOOL BREEDS OF SHEEP 

The Name, Native Home, Color of Points, Approximate Length 
of Wool, Weight of Fleece, and the Average Weight of 
Sheep for Each of the Fine-Wool Breeds 



Name of 
Breed 


Native 
Home 


Color op 
Points 


Length of 
Wool, In. 


Weight of 
Fleece, Lbs. 


Weight of 
Sheep, Lbs. 


American 
Merino 


United 

States 


White 


2-2 1 


12-25 


100-150 


Delaine 
Merino 


United 
States 


White 


3-5 


10-20 


100-150 


Rambouil- 
let 


France 


White 


3-4 ' 


10-15 


150-185 



321. American Merino fine-wool sheep. — Because this breed 
of sheep has been so vastly improved in America, its native home 
is given as the United States, although it is of Spanish Merino 
origin. The word " Merino " means " from over the sea." In 
Spain, there formerly existed two great groups of sheep, one known 
as Estantes, or stationary, a rather coarse-wooled type ; the other 
known as Transhumantes, or migratory, a fine-wooled type, which 
was driven up into the mountains to graze during the summer and 
returned in the fall to their original home. The American Merino 
descended largely from the latter type, although collected from 



200 Animal Husbandry 

a number of provinces, the more important being Paular, Aguirre, 
Negrette, Guadalupe, Escurial, and Infantado. 

During the eighteenth century the Spanish Merino was widely 
distributed, being introduced to Sweden in 1723, to Saxony in 
1765, to Germany in 1768, to France in 1768, to England in 1787, 
to the United States in 1793, and to Australia in 1797. 

In America, improvement began with the importations of Seth 
Adams, in 1801, then of Massachusetts, but later of Ohio; with 
the importations of Colonel David Humphreys of Connecticut in 
1802 ; with the importations of Robert Livingston of New York 
in the same year ; and with the importations of William Jarvis 
of Vermont, who began in 1809 and at different times introduced 
a total of about 4000 Spanish Merinos, which were well distributed 
throughout the eastern states. These men did much to improve 
the Merino, particularly the character and quality of the fleece, 
and to their flocks trace most of the best fine-wool sheep of 
to-day. 

322. Description of American Merino sheep. — In size, this 
breed ranks medium, with a form typical of fine-wool sheep. The 
head is small, with nose and ears white, and with the rams carrying 
heavy, spirally twisted horns, while the ewes are hornless. The 
neck is thin and of medium length, shoulders sloping, chest nar- 
row but deep, withers thin, back rather narrow, rump often steep, 
thighs thin, and legs small and fine. The skin is an important 
factor and should be bright pink in color. It is often folded about 
the nose, neck, breast, shoulders, lower sides, rump, and thighs 
(Figs 70, 71). 

323. The American Merino fleece. — This is the finest wool 
produced. The more folds on the body and the more crimped the 
fiber, the finer the staple. The fleece covers the entire body except 
the nose, lower third of head, and the ears. It contains much oil 
or yolk, which, if scoured off, may shrink the wool 65 per cent in 
weight. Because of this excess of oil, the wool collects dust, 
giving the outside of the fleece a dirty black color. 



Breeds of Sheep 



201 



The Comparative Diameter of the Wools of Different Breeds of 

Sheep 





Average Diameter of Fiber 




Centimillimeters 


Fraction of an Inch 


Merino 


2.127 
2.936 
3.298 
3.707 
3.879 
4.196 
4.365 


ttV? 

T67 

l 

607 

1 
7>8T 


Southdown 

Hampshire Down 

Lincoln 


Leicester 

Cotswold 

Oxford Down 



324. Delaine Merino fine-wool sheep. — The word " Delaine " 
is of French origin and signifies " from wool." Delaine wool can 
be combed and spun with the fibers of full length, making a fabric 
of great strength and durability. It is used in making fine, un- 
twilled, worsted dress goods. The Delaine type has been developed 
from importations of Spanish Merinos, somewhat similar to the 
American Merino. There are several families of Delaines, of which 
the following are most important : — 

The Dickinson Delaine. — This family was originated and de- 
veloped by William R. Dickinson of Steubenville, Ohio, who bred 
from about 1809 to 1830. James McDowell became possessed of 
some of the Dickinson flock and established the McDowell strain 
of Dickinsons. 

The National Delaine. — This family was originated by Alex- 
ander Reed of Washington County, Pennsylvania, who began 
breeding about 1821, although the sheep he used in establishing 
the family was imported from Spain by R. W. Mead in 1820. 
Animals from the Reed flock became widely distributed among 
breeders in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, who developed the 
family, perhaps more than Reed. 

The Black Top Spanish Delaine. — This family of Merinos was 



202 



Animal Husbandry 



established by William Berry of Washington County, Pennsylvania, 
who began the work about 1821, although the sheep employed in 
the breeding operations descended from the Colonel Humphrey im- 
portation of 1802. Mr. Berry endeavored to produce a large, 




Fig. 73. — The Delaine Merino ram "Beacon." Fine-wool type. 

heavy-shearing, fine-wool sheep, selecting those of darkest outer 
covering, which he termed Black Tops. 

325. Delaine Merino compared with the American Merino. — 
In a very general way these two types are similar, with the De- 
laines possessing fewer folds of the skin, although the several 
families of Delaines vary widely in size and conformation. Thus 
in the Dickinson Delaine, which is one of the largest, the standard 
weight for mature rams is 200 pounds, and that for ewes, 150 pounds, 



Breeds of Sheep 



203 



while in the National Delaine, which is perhaps one of the smallest, 
the standard weight for a mature ram is 150 pounds, and for the 
ewe, 100 pounds. Likewise, there is considerable variation in the 
conformation, the mutton qualities of some of the families having 
been especially looked after by the breeders until they possess some- 
what the form of the mutton type (Fig. 73). 

326. Rambouillet fine-wool sheep. — This breed of sheep was 
developed in France, although of Spanish Merino ancestry. It 
takes its name from the Royal farm at the village of Rambouillet, 




Fig. 74. — The Rambouillet. Fine-wool type. 

near Paris. The first importation of sheep to this Royal farm 
was in 1786, when M. Gilbert was sent to Spain and selected a 
flock of 366 animals representing several different families. In 
1801, Gilbert made a second importation, securing 237 sheep, 
which he says was not the equal of the first importation. Im- 
provement was secured principally by selection, the object being 
to produce a large carcass, of good mutton form, covered with 
a good fleece. The French government officials kept careful 



204 



Animal Husbandry 



records of their breeding operations at Rambouillet for upwards 
of a hundred years. Much progress was made in point of size, but 
the fleece did not increase in the same ratio. 

327. Rambouillet compared with the American Merino. — The 
former does not differ from the latter except in size and possibly in 
a smoother body. Individuals of the former, both male and female, 
may go as much as a hundred pounds heavier than the latter. 
The Rambouillet is often criticised for possessing a tendency to 
coarseness of bone and length of leg. The large body, usually 
smooth and free from folds, except occasionally a few wrinkles 
on the neck, is completely covered with a fine, white fleece, which, 
however, lacks the yolk or oil of the American Merino (Fig. 74) . 

THE MUTTON BREEDS OF SHEEP 

The Name, Native Home, Color of Points, Approximate Length of 
Wool, Weight of Fleece, and the Average Weight of Sheep 
for Each of the Mutton Breeds 



Name of 
Bkeed 


Native 
Home 


Color of 
Points 


Length of 
Wool, In. 


Weight of 
Wool, Lbs. 


Weight of 
Sheep, Lbs. 


Southdown 


England 


Gray 


2-3 


4-8 


125-175 


Shropshire 


England 


Dark brown 


3-4 


8-12 


155-225 


Hampshire 


England 


Dark brown 


3-4 


5-8 


180-250 


Suffolk Down 


England 


Black 


3-5 


5-8 


180-240 


Oxford Down 


England 


Brown 


4-6 


6-10 


200-325 


Dorset 


England 


White 


3-4 


6-9 


150-225 


Cheviot 


Scotland 
England 


White 


5-8 


6-10 


150-225 



328. Southdown mutton sheep. — This breed was developed 
in southeast England, particularly in the county of Sussex. Ex- 
tending east and west through this region is a range of low chalky 
hills known as the South Downs from which the breed derives its 
name. The native sheep were small and ill-shaped, with light 



Breeds of Sheep 



205 



forequarters, long, drooping back, lacking spring of rib, and with 
the wool short, coarse, and thin. 

Improvement began about 1775 under the leadership of John 
Ellman, of Glynde, who doubtless received his inspiration from 









Fig. 75. — The Southdown. Mutton type. 

the success of Bakewell with the Leicester. Ellman was impressed 
with the necessity of improving the native sheep to secure a better 
mutton form and an ease of fattening. He procured the best sheep 
that he could find and succeeded in creating a superior mutton 
type. He possessed a very large flock numbering about 1400 head. 
Jonas Webb of Barbaham, Cambridge, England, was another 
noted Southdown breeder. He began breeding about 1821 with 
a selection of sheep from the Ellman flock. Webb purchased the 



206 Animal Husbandry 

best sheep he could buy, regardless of price. He built on Ellman's 
foundation and produced the best known type of mutton sheep, 
improving the general symmetry, increasing the size, promoting 
the early fattening tendency, and improving the quality of the flesh. 
The Southdown was the first of the Down or mutton breeds to 
be improved, and has been used in the development of the other 
mutton breeds, more particularly the Shropshire, Hampshire, and 
Oxford. It early became the favorite breed of the English royalty 
and aristocracy, and remains so to the present time. 

329. Description of the Southdown sheep. — In size this breed 
is inferior to the other mutton breeds. Notwithstanding this, 
the form is so meritorious that the animals are very heavy for 
their size. The head is of medium size and hornless, with the fore- 
head and cheeks well covered with wool. The neck is short and 
thick; the shoulders are broad and full; the back is broad and 
straight, with ribs well arched and long, giving capacity ; the rump 
is broad, square, and full ; and the hindquarters long, with the twist 
extremely deep and full. The skin should be a bright pink in color. 
The entire body should be covered with a compact fleece of moderate 
length, which should be white in color and which should carry some 
oil or yolk (Fig. 75). 

330. Shropshire mutton sheep. — This breed was developed in 
the counties of Shropshire and Stafford, England. The origin 
of the breed is obscure. The name, as applied to sheep, is men- 
tioned in English literature as far back as the fourteenth century, 
there being at that time a grade of wool designated as Shropshire. 
The improvement, however, is of comparatively recent date, for 
Plymley, writing on the agriculture of Shropshire in 1803, describes 
the native sheep as possessing horns and black faces, and clipping a 
fleece of about two pounds. 

The Shropshire owes much of its present improvement to Sam- 
uel Meire,- of Berrington and Harley. He sought to reduce the 
general coarseness, to remove the horns, to improve the levelness 
of the back, to increase the spring of ribs, and to improve the mut- 



Breeds of Sheep 



207 



ton qualities generally. He secured Southdown rams of John 
Ellman and used them in his flock. Leicester blood was also 
introduced for the purpose of improving the feeding qualities. 
Both the Southdown and the Leicester improved the general 
symmetry of the Shropshire sheep. 

331. Shropshire compared with the Southdown. — The former 
is the larger and ranks among the heaviest of the mutton breeds. 




Fig. 76. — The Shropshire. Mutton type. 



The more approved type of Shropshire calls for all the best features 
in the mutton sheep. The head is hornless, and in the best speci- 
mens is covered with a cap of wool almost to the nostrils. In 
form it is not so good in the thigh and twist as the Southdown. 
In general outline the Shropshire is taller and more rangy than the 
Southdown. The length of wool as well as the quantity exceeds 



208 



Animal Husbandry 



that of the Southdown, and it is said that the Shropshire excels 
in fecundity, early maturity, and quick-fattening qualities (Fig. 76). 
332. Hampshire mutton sheep. — This breed was developed in 
central England, particularly in the county of Hampshire. The 
early origin is more or less obscure, but traces back to at least two 




Fig. 77. — The Hampshire. Mutton type. 



sources. Formerly there existed in Wiltshire, and to some extent 
in Hampshire and other near-by counties, a large, slow -maturing, 
narrow-backed, horned type of sheep known as Wiltshire-horned. 



Breeds of Sheep 209 

In Berkshire there was another large, strong-boned, and horned 
type known as the Berkshire-knot sheep. These two types were 
interbred and crossed with the Southdowns, which resulted in a 
type known as the West Down, the ancestor of the present-day 
Hampshire. 

Marked improvement of the Hampshire breed began about 
1834 under the leadership of William Humphrey of Oak Ash, New- 
bury. He procured a choice flock of West Downs and began his 
work by selection, but later conceived the idea that crossing would 
be of advantage. Consequently he obtained three Southdown 
rams from Jonas Webb, and crossed on his ewes with success. 

333. Hampshire compared with Southdown. — The former is 
the larger and coarser throughout, with the fleece somewhat re- 
sembling that of the latter, although it is coarser and less dense. 
The face of the Hampshire is inclined to be long, and the nose 
somewhat Roman in the rams. The ears are large and drooping, 
and the face and legs almost black. As compared with the Shrop- 
shire, it is longer in body, and longer of leg ; which, in connection 
with its coarse features, gives it a very much larger general ap- 
pearance (Fig. 77). 

334. Oxford Down mutton sheep. — This breed was developed 
in England, principally in the county of Oxford. The origin of the 
Oxford Down breed of sheep is comparatively recent. About 
1829, John T. Twynham conceived the idea of developing a new 
breed of sheep combining the desirable qualities of the long-wooled 
breeds and of the Down breeds. He began breeding by mating 
compact Costwold rams with Hampshire ewes. A little later, 
perhaps about 1833, Samuel Druce and William Gillet began a 
similar line of breeding, and introduced Southdown blood to some 
extent, although the Hampshire was the chief source of Down blood. 
Up to 1857 the breed was known as Down-Cotswold, but in that 
year the name " Oxfordshire Down " was adapted. Later it was 
changed to Oxford Down, and is now commonly spoken of as 
Oxford. 



210 



Animal Husbandry 






335. Oxford Down compared with Southdown. — The former 
is larger and coarser, with a longer fleece and darker points. The 
Oxford is the largest of the Down breeds, standing very much 
higher than the Southdown, and is more rangy. As would be 
expected, from the Cotswold ancestry, the Oxford has a longer 




Fig. 78. —The Oxford. Mutton type. 

and coarser fleece than any other breeds of the mutton group ; 
while from the Hampshire line, it inherits a tendency to dark or 
bluish skin, as well as black spots and hairs in the fleece. The 
modern Oxford, however, is being rapidly improved, and these 
objectionable features overcome (Fig. 78). 

336. Suffolk Down mutton sheep. — This breed was developed 
in southeastern England in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, Essex, 
and Kent. The Suffolk is the result of a cross between the old 
Norfolk breed and the Southdown. This old Norfolk breed re- 
sembled the Blackfaced Highland to some extent, having the 



Breeds of Sheep 



211 



same colored points, large bone, long, spiral horns, long body, 
flat ribs, and rather narrow loins. Later Hampshire blood was 
used with marked success. The Southdown cross removed the 
horns from the old Norfolk breed, gave a better carcass, and in- 
creased the early-maturing and easy-fattening qualities, while 




Fig. 79. — The Suffolk. Mutton type. 



the Hampshire cross gave size and weight. The modern Suffolk 
is a conspicuous example of the remarkable success in cross- 
breeding. 

337. Suffolk Down compared with Southdown. — The former 
is larger and more rangy with black face and long, clean, black legs. 
No doubt, because of its ancestry, it slightly resembles the South- 
down in character and wool, but is about one-third larger in body 
and much longer in the leg. The ears are black, rather large, and 



212 



Animal Husbandry 




tend to droop. There is considerable resemblance between the 
Suffolk and the Hampshire, but, as a rule, the breeds can be dis- 
tinguished by the bareness of the Suffolk head, which is free from 
wool (Fig. 79). 

338. Dorset-Horn mutton sheep. — This breed originated in 
central and southern England, notably in the counties of Dorset, 

Somerset, and Wiltshire. In Eng- 
land the breed is often spoken of as 
Somerset. This is one of the oldest 
distinct breeds of sheep, no other 
breeds or race having mingled with 
it. The original stock was small, 
light in the shoulders, with white 
face and legs, but a flesh-colored 
nose. Both males and females have 
horns. The stock of Somerset was 
somewhat larger, coarser, and longer 
wooled than that of Dorset County. 
The general improvement of the 
breed as a whole was brought about 

by selection on the part of several breeders in western Dorsetshire. 

Perhaps the most noted of the early breeders was Richard Seymour 

of Bradpole, Dorset County. 

339. Dorset-Horn compared with Southdown. — The former 
is larger, longer bodied, and longer of leg than the latter. While 
the fleece of the Dorset somewhat resembles that of the South- 
down, the general features present a strong contrast. Among 
Dorsets both sexes have horns, those of the male being curved 
backward and around spirally ; those of the female curved out- 
ward, downward, and forward. The face and legs are pure 
white. In length, quality, and quantity of fleece, the Dorset 
ranks intermediate between the Southdown and the Shropshire 
(Fig. 80). 

The Dorset-Horn breed is famous for its prolificacy, breeding 



Fig. 80. 



■The Dorset-Horn. Mut- 
ton type. 



Breeds of Sheep 



213 



twice annually, and for its ability to produce lambs earlier in the 
season than any other breed. 

340. Cheviot breed. — This breed was developed in the border 
country between England and Scotland, taking its name from the 
hills bounding the two countries. The origin of the breed is ob- 
scure, as sheep have been bred for a very long time among these 
hills on the Scottish border. The monks of the middle ages had 




Fig. 81. — The Cheviot. Mutton type. 



the breed about the pasture lands of the old monasteries. We are 
indebted to these sheep-farming churchmen for the first improve- 
ment. The breed owes its present condition to selection and 
better care on the part of breeders generally. 

341. Cheviot compared with Southdown. — These two breeds 
present a strong contrast. The face and legs of the Cheviot are 
white and free from wool, although the body is closely covered 
with long, soft wool, which is pure white. The breed is very hardy 
and active ; in fact, the temperament is characteristic of Scottish 
animals generally (Fig. 81). 



214 



Animal Husbandry 



LONG-WOOL BREEDS OF MUTTON SHEEP 

The Name, Native Home, Color of Points, Approximate Length op 
Wool, Weight of Fleece, and Average Weight of Sheep for 
Each of the Long-Wooled Mutton Breeds 



Name of 
Breed 


Native Home 


Color of 
Points 


Length of 
Wool, In. 


Weight of 
Wool, Lbs. 


Weight of 
Sheep, Lbs. 


Leicester . 


England 


White 


6-10 


6-10 


180-240 


Cotswold . 
Lincoln 


England 
England 


White, 

spotted 
White, 

mottled 


8-14 
10-18 


8-12 
10-14 


200-265 
275-350 


Blackfaced 
Highland 


Scotland 


Black 


8-14 


4-7 





342. Leicester long-wooled sheep. — This breed was developed 
in Leicester County, England. The origin of the breed is obscure. 
Formerly there existed in Leicester a long-wooled, large, coarse, 
narrow-backed, and slow-feeding type, and it was from this type 
that the modern Leicester was developed. The first improvement 
was accomplished by Robert Bakewell, who began his sheep breed- 
ing efforts about 1755. His object was to produce a breed that 
would fatten quickly and mature early. Before this, size and body- 
weight had been the aim of breeders generally. Bakewell at- 
tracted wide attention, and his flock became very famous. He 
let his rams instead of selling them, and some excellent prices were 
obtained. Thus, in 1787, he let three rams for $6000. The 
Leicester as improved by Bakewell retains to-day many of the 
original features. 

343. Description of Leicester sheep. — This breed is fairly 
large, with long body, very wide back, and a tendency to be long 
of leg. The face and legs are free from wool and covered with a 
soft, white hair. While the face is only medium in length, the nose 
is often Roman in form. For a large sheep, the body is plump and 



Breeds of Sheep 



215 




Fig. 82. — The Leicester. Mutton type. 



full. The fleece is excellent for a coarse wool, and usually lies 
over the body in fine spiral locks. Usually no wool extends in 
front of the ears (Fig. 82). 

344. Cotswold long-wooled sheep. — This breed was developed 
in Gloucester County, England. The name of the breed is derived 
from attendant conditions. Formerly, sheep were kept in shelters 
known as " Cots," and were pastured on the treeless hills known 
as " Wolds," from which the term Cotswold is derived. The 
origin is obscure, but much of the improvement was secured by 
using Leicester rams on Cotswold ewes. The use of Leicester 
blood reduced the size, improved the symmetry, and increased the 
early-maturing qualities. 



216 



Animal Husbandry 



345. Cotswold compared with the Leicester. — Because of the 
intermingling of the blood of these breeds, they resemble each 




Fig. 83. —The Cotswold. Mutton type. 

other somewhat, although the Cotswold is the larger and possesses 
the longer wool. The head of the Cotswold is a distinguishing 
feature, being usually white, but sometimes slightly mixed or 



Breeds of Sheep 



217 



spotted with gray or brown, and with curls or locks hanging over 
the forehead, often extending to the nostrils. As a rule, the back 
is fully as broad as the Leicester's, but often lacks the depth, 
especially behind (Fig. 83). 

346. Lincoln long-wooled sheep. — This breed was developed 
in Lincoln County, on the east coast of England. The native 




Fig. 84. — The Lincoln. Mutton type. 

sheep of Lincolnshire were remarkable for their size and for length 
of wool, but they were of a coarse type and late-maturing. This 
old-fashioned type was much improved by the use of Leicester 
rams such as Bakewell had produced. This Leicester blood re- 
duced the coarseness, improved the symmetry, and increased the 
early-maturing qualities. Much jealousy sprang up between the 
Lincoln and Leicester breeders, with the result that neither spared 
time nor money to promote their respective breeds. 

347. Lincoln compared with Leicesters. — The Lincoln is the 
largest and longest-fleeced breed of sheep in Britain. For length 



218 



Animal Husbandry 



of fiber and strength of staple no other breed can rival it. The 
Lincoln possesses a broader and deeper body than the Leicester, 
and the legs do not appear so long. The Lincoln can be dis- 
tinguished from the Cotswold by the absence of long locks hanging 
from the forehead, although there may be a short f oretop (Fig. 84) . 
348. Blackfaced Highland sheep. — This breed developed in 
the Highlands of Scotland, notably in the counties of Perth and 




Fig. 85. — The Blackfaced Highland. 



Dumbarton. It may justly claim to be one of the oldest in Britain, 
and as such, its early history is little known. The fact that the 
breed was extremely hardy and could endure the higher lands 
even better than the Cheviot, gave it foothold which it retains 
to the present time. 

Both sexes have horns. Those of the male are rather large, 
taking one or two spiral curves, while those of the female are 
small, thin, and curved, but not spiral. The body is that of a 
typical mutton sheep. The fleece is long and coarse, often full 



Breeds of Sheep 219 

of kemp, and lacks density over the entire body. As the name 
indicates, the face and legs are black (Fig. 85). 



GOATS 

The goat is closely allied to the sheep. As with other classes 
of live stock, the goat has developed along two types according 
to the demands made upon it. Thus we have one type grown for 
its fleece, and a second propagated for the milk it can produce. 
Perhaps the Angora is the best representative of the type grown 
for its fleece. 

349. Angora goat. — This herd developed in Angora, Asia 
Minor. The origin is obscure, some writers venturing to say that 




Fig. 86. — The Angora goat. 

the breed originated 2400 years ago in the district of Angora. 
The Angora goat owes its present development to selection and 
better care on the part of Angora fanciers generally. The fleece 
of the animals should be pure white, and grow to the length of 
about ten inches during the year. It should hang in ringlets or 
wavy curls, the wave extending throughout the entire length of 
the hair (Fig. 86). 



220 



Animal Husbandry 



In addition to his value for the fleece, the Angora is held in high 
esteem as a renovator of brush land. The goat is a natural 
browser and not a grazing animal. In brush land, therefore, he 
is in his element, taking the tender twigs and thus destroying the 
brush very effectively. 

The fleece of the Angora, which is commercially known as 
mohair, differs from wool in having no exterior scale and, there- 
fore, does not possess the felting quality. Mohair is used ex- 
tensively in the manufacture of plush, such as is used in uphol- 
stering. Besides plush, which is the principal item, it may be 
used in the manufacture of coats and coat-linings, table covers, 
mittens, and gloves and the like. 

350. Milk goat. — Because of its antiquity we are in doubt as 
to the origin of the milk goat. Whatever may have been its 




Fig. 87. —The milk goat. 



origin, however, it has exerted a strong influence on the economic 
welfare of the people among whom it has been found. The milk 
goat owes its present development to its economic worth as a 



Breeds of Sheep 221 

milk-producing animal among the poorer people of various foreign 
countries. 

The milk of the goat is chalk-white in color and contains about 
4| per cent of fat. An average yield of a quart a day is not un- 
common. When goats are kept under proper conditions, and with 
due regard for cleanliness, the milk is wholesome and no unpleasant 
flavor is noticeable (Fig. 87). 

There are many breeds of milk goats, of which the Maltese, 
Toggenburg, Saanen, Appenzell, Schwarzthal, and the Nubian 
are the most notable. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many pure-bred sheep are there in your vicinity? What 
breeds are the most common ? Why are they preferred ? 

2. Give the names of a few of the leading sheep exhibitors at your state, 
county, or town fair. What are some of the prices obtained for their prize- 
winning stock ? 

3. Why has England been so successful in developing mutton sheep, 
while America holds first place among the fine-wool sheep? Why has 
the fine-wool sheep become so popular in France ? 

4. Which breeds of sheep shear the heaviest fleece ? Why ? Why is 
Class A — sheep with heavy folds — not so popular as formerly ? 

5. Why has the milk goat never become popular in America ? Why are 
they extensively used in many foreign countries ? Considering the body 
weight, how does the milk goat compare with the dairy cow in yield of 
milk and butter fat ? 



CHAPTER XIII 

JUDGING SHEEP 

The wool-covering of the body of the sheep makes an examina- 
tion of the form rather difficult. , The wool is often so trimmed as 
to deceive. An expert trimmer, possessing much skill with the 
shears, can give a rather inferior sheep the appearance of a plump 
full form ; thus animals with sway backs, narrow, flat ribs, narrow, 
peaked rumps, are often so trimmed as to conceal such defects. 
Therefore, do not depend on the eye alone, but fortify it with the 
touch, carefully noting each character. During this examination, 
keep the fingers and thumb together and the hand flat. Never 
stick the fingers into the wool. When it is desired to examine 
the wool, open up the wool with the hand flat (Fig. 96). 

351. Catching sheep. — There are two proper ways to catch 
sheep : first, by the hind leg above the gambrel joint ; second, by 
placing the hand underneath the jaw and around the neck. Do 
not catch a sheep by its wool, as this not only pulls and injures 
the wool, but leaves a black mark or bruise on the body which 
interferes very much with the sale of the carcass of mutton. If 
the shepherd's crook is used in catching the sheep, the aim should 
be to catch above the gambrel joint, as there is danger of injuring 
the leg if caught below this joint. 

352. Holding sheep. — To hold a sheep, stand on the left side 
and place the left hand under the animal's jaw, keeping the right 
hand free to place behind the sheep in case it attempts to move 
backward. Do not attempt to keep the sheep from moving 
backward by pulling on the head or the wool, as either of these 
methods will be quickly resisted, and will result in injury to the 

222 



Judging Sheep 



223 



wool and carcass. Gently place the right arm around back of 

the thighs, and the sheep will stop the backward movement at 

once. Likewise do not attempt 

to keep the animal from going 

forward by pulling on the wool, 

but place the left hand gently 

under the jaw. 

353. How to estimate the age 
of sheep. — The order of the ap- 
pearance of the permanent teeth 
furnishes the best index to the 
age, especially from one to four 
years of age (Fig. 88). The age 
at which the permanent teeth make 
their appearance is approximately 
as follows : — 




. — Sheep's teeth arranged ac- 
cording to age. 
12 months. 15 months. 
26 months. 37 months. 
48 months. 8 years. 



First or middle pair of permanent teeth 15 months 

Second or first intermediate pair of permanent teeth ... 26 months 

Third or second intermediate pair of permanent teeth ... 37 months 

Fourth or lateral pair of permanent teeth 48 months 

354. Score-card for sheep. — Each breed of sheep has its own 
scale of points, varying in detail, but similar to the following in 
general characteristics. (See p. 224.) 



GENERAL APPEARANCE OF SHEEP 

355. Form. — This will vary according to the object sought. 
In the fine-wool sheep, the form may differ materially from that 
desired for mutton. Class A, fine-wool, should have very heavy 
folds over the entire body. Great depth of body is often more 
sought than width, and the animals are often quite angular in 
appearance. The form sought is that which indicates great 
vitality, and gives much surface for the production of wool. Fine- 
wool sheep are therefore often high-standing ; deep of chest, 



224 



Animal Husbandry 



STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 

Mutton Sheep 





Standard 


Points Deficient 


Scale of Points 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 


Age 

General Appearance, 38 per cent 


8 
10 

10 
10 

2 

5 

1 

1 

4 
4 
6 
6 

2 

4 
4 
5 
1 

4 
4 
4 












Quality, clean bone ; silky hair ; fine, pink skin ; light 






Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, espe- 
cially in regions of valuable cuts. Points indicat- 
ing ripeness are, thick dock, back thickly covered 
with flesh, thick neck, full purse, full flank, plump 






Head and Neck, 7 per cent 

Muzzle, fine, mouth large ; lips thin ; nostrils large 






Eyes, large, clear, placid 






Face, short ; features clean-cut 
























Fore quarters, 7 per cent 

Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top ; snug 






Brisket, neat, proportionate ; breast wide .... 






Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong ; forearm full ; 






Body, 20 per cent 
























Hindquarters, 16 per cent 

Hips, far apart, level, smooth 






Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head 
























Wool, 12 per cent 

Quantity, long dense, even 






















Total 


100 














Judging Sheep 225 

though narrow; long of body, though well supported; light in 
the hindquarters, with skin fold varying according to the class. 

On the other hand, the form of the mutton sheep should be com- 
parable to that of the beef animal. They should be low and con- 
densed in organization. The top and 
bottom lines should be parallel, the 
shoulders and chest almost as wide as 
the hips and rump. The body should 
be short and thick, as long bodies lack- 
ing in depth and fullness are objection- 
able to the sheep feeder and to the 
butcher. The region of valuable cuts 
of mutton are the same as those of 

beef, that is, along the back, loin, Fig. 89. - Mutton sheep of good 

rump, and thigh ; hence these regions 

should be exceedingly strong and well developed. (See Fig. 89.) 

356. Condition and weight. — Since the weight depends much 
on the condition of the sheep, they will be considered together. 
As weight is a breed characteristic, no definite figures can be sug- 
gested, but the animals chosen should be fairly large for the par- 
ticular breed to which they belong. Among wool sheep, the con- 
dition should be such as to indicate thrift and health ; excessive 
fleshiness is not essential. In general, the condition must be 
determined by the touch, as the wool often deceives the eye. 
Among mutton sheep a fair amount of flesh is desirable, even in 

» the breeding stock, as the tendency to fatten quickly is a very 
important consideration in this type. 

357. Quality. — Sheep possessing much quality are desired for 
both mutton and wool production. With sheep, as with other 
farm animals, quality is determined by the bone, skin, and hair. 
The bone should be dense, clean, and of fine texture. The skin 
should be soft, pink in color, and comparatively thin. Care must be 
exercised in respect to the thinness of the skin, as a thin paper skin 
is often associated with weakness of constitution. The hair on the 



226 Animal Husbandry 

ears, face, and legs should be soft and silky. Sheep possessing a 
tight, heavy, pale skin, coarse, harsh hair about the face and on 
the legs, and heavy, rough, coarse bone are deficient in quality. 

358. Constitutional vigor. — This deserves much attention, for 
in its absence the wool will be of poor quality and the mutton sheep 
an unprofitable animal. Vigor is estimated by the general expres- 
sion, by the condition of the skin, and by the chest capacity. The 
expression of the eyes, ears, and head should be mild and lively, and 
the sheep should be on the alert. The skin should be deep pink 
and not pale. The chest capacity should be large. A good way to 
estimate the chest capacity among sheep is to note the distance be- 
tween the front legs along the floor of the chest. If the distance be- 
tween the legs is small, it denotes a narrow chest. A narrow chest is 
always objectionable, as it may indicate lack of constitutional vigor. 

359. Uniformity. — The importance of uniformity in a flock of 
sheep, chosen either for wool or mutton, cannot be overestimated. 
They should be uniform in type, size, and breeding. While such 
uniformity may not add to the production of wool or to the ability 
to take on flesh, it materially improves their general appearance, 
and increases their market value. Either the butcher or the 
sheep breeder will pay more for a uniform flock than for one in 
which such regularity is wanting. 



DETAIL CHARACTERS OF SHEEP 

360. Head. — This part should be short, with strong jaws and 
large nostrils. The mouth should be examined to note the age 
and condition of the teeth. Sheep with missing teeth are unde- 
sirable either for mutton or wool. The eyes should be mild, bright, 
and prominent ; the forehead broad and full. The ears should be 
refined, short, and active. Coarse, leathery ears are objectionable, 
as they indicate poor quality. The horns, if present, should be 
strong, rather angular at the base, and have a spiral shape turning 
backward and around, sometimes making two complete turns. 





Fig. 93. — Fullness of back at loin. 



Fig. 90. — Judging sheep. Fullness of 
shoulders. 




Fig. 91.— Width of chest. 





Fig. 94. — Width of rump. 




Fig. 9z. — Fullness of back at shoulder Fig. 95. — Condition of leg of mutton, 
tops. 

227 



228 Animal Husbandry 

361. Neck. — With the flat hand, note the length and fullness 
of the neck. Among mutton sheep the neck should be full, short, 
and neatly attached to the head and shoulders. In fine-wool 
sheep it may possess some length, deep folds, and lack the fullness, 
though it should be neatly attached at both head and shoulders. 

362. Shoulders. — Among mutton sheep the shoulder should be 
full, neat, and closely rounded along the sides and over the top. 
Sharp, angular shoulders are very objectionable. They should 
be smoothly curved with flesh (Fig. 90). 

363. Chest. — With the flat hand, note the capacity of the chest 
as follows : kneeling on the left side of the animal, place the left 
hand on the floor of the chest, between and just back of the fore 
legs, at the same time placing the right hand on the back just to 
the rear of the shoulder-tops. In this position one can note lack 
of depth as well as the narrowness of the chest at both top and 
bottom. Next note the heart girth and width of chest by placing 
one hand on either side at the same time (Fig. 91). 

364. Body. — With the hands in the same position, one either 
side of the animal, note the width of the body. Next place the 
flat hand on the back at the shoulder-tops, and note the width and 
straightness of the back from the shoulder-tops to the tail-head, 
by pressing down gently as the hand is drawn to the rear. In so 
doing, one must observe that the sheep does not move his back as 
the hand is passing over, making the back appear swayed when 
in reality it is not (Figs. 92, 93). 

365. Rump. — This should be long, wide, and level. These 
characteristics can be ascertained only by the touch. The fleshi- 
ness should be carried well down to the hock, and the twist should 
be plump and full (Fig. 94). 

366. Leg of mutton. — This includes the rump also, and is the 
most valuable cut of mutton; therefore, the thigh should be 
heavily meated. This can be determined only by the touch, and 
to do this one places the left hand around the leg at the flank, and 
the right around the rear at the thigh (Fig. 95). 



Judging Sheep 



229 



367. Legs. — These should be carefully observed. Sheep's 
legs are at best far from straight. As a rule, the fore legs of fine- 
wool sheep are too close together, the knees almost touching. 
This is objectionable, for, as we have already observed, fore legs 
placed close together indicate a narrow chest, which in turn sig- 
nifies lack of constitutional vigor. Fine-wool sheep also have very 
crooked hocks, which is equally as objectionable. Often the legs 
below the hocks are carried too much under the body, the shanks 
being too slanting. The toes are 
often neglected and let grow out 
too long, which throws the legs 
still farther out of their proper 
position. 

368. Examining the fleece. — 
In the examination of the wool 
the chief factors to consider are 
the quantity, the quality, and 
the condition. In considering the 
quantity the entire body must be 
examined. To note the quantity 
along the abdomen and arm pits, the sheep should be turned up 
and placed on its rump. With the sheep in this position, the wool 
along the abdomen and arm pits can be carefully noted. These 

places should be densely covered, 
though such is seldom the case 
among many of the mutton breeds. 
In considering the quality, the best 
method is to open the fleece along 
the side just back of the shoulder 
and in the region of the thigh. 
With the hands placed in a flat 
position, open the wool just back 
of the shoulder (Fig. 96). It is 
Fig. 97. — The coarsest of the fleece, in this region that the finest and 




Fig. 96. —The finest of the fleece. 




230 



Animal Husbandry 



soundest wool of the fleece is found. With the hands in like posi- 
tion, open the wool along the thigh (Fig. 97). In this region the 
poorest and coarsest wool of the entire fleece is to be found. 

369. Market classes of sheep. — On the market, sheep are 
divided into classes according to age, condition, and quality. 
Classes vary in the different markets, but the following table 
will give an idea of the nature of the classification. Each sub- 
class is divided into a number of grades, as prime, common, and 
inferior : — 

Class Sub-Class 

f Lambs 
Mutton sheep Yearlings 

(Native and western sheep) 1 Wethers 

I Ewes 



Feeder sheep 
(Western sheep) 



Bucks and 
Lambs 
Yearlings 
Wethers 

. Ewes 



stags 



Breeding sheep f Ewes 

(Native and western sheep) { Bucks 
i 

370. Cuts of mutton. — The diagrams which follow 
very clearly indicate the parts of the animal from which 
the cuts of mutton are taken, a knowledge of which 
is useful in dealing with the meat market (Fig. 98). 



1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Shoulders. 

4. Flank. 

5. Loin. 

6. Leg. 



Fig. 98. — Diagrams of cuts of lamb and mutton. 





Judging Sheep 231 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are sheep the most difficult of farm animals to judge? What 
precautions should* be taken that we be not deceived ? How should a 
sheep be held ? 

2. Contrast the three fine-wool breeds of sheep, and give distinguishing 
characteristics. Contrast the form of the mutton and wool type. Why is 
constitutional vigor so essential in fine-wool sheep ? In mutton sheep ? 

3. Why is a careful examination of the skin of first importance in judg- 
ing sheep ? What knowledge can be gained from an examination of the 
mouth ? 

4. Why is the finest of the fleece produced just back of the shoulder, 
and the coarsest on the thigh? Where are bare places most likely to 
be found ? Which breeds are the most subject to this defect ? 

5. Name the uses of wool. Of mohair. In the manufacture of woolens, 
how are the wools classified ? Describe each class and give the particular 
uses. Can the quality of the wool be influenced by the feed ? 

6. How can unsound wool be detected ? Name the more important 
causes of unsound wool. Why do the woolen manufacturers discrim- 
inate against unsound wool ? 

7. Name the most valuable cuts of mutton and locate the region on 
the sheep's body from which they come. Compare with the most 
valuable cuts of beef. 

8. Approximately what percentage of the total weight of the carcass 
is located in the region of valuable cuts? What percentage of the 
total price will these sell for on the market ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

FEEDING SHEEP 

Sheep are among the most difficult of farm animals to feed. 
Thorough familiarity with their habits is essential to success. 
Sheep are naturally very timid in their disposition, very dainty 
feeders, and are easily frightened out of their appetite. A sudden 
noise or disturbance of any kind will often greatly frighten 
them, and sometimes create a stampede or panic in the entire 
flock. 

371. Sheep are delicate. — Sheep are the most susceptible of 
farm animals to the ravages of parasites, both internal and ex- 
ternal. These parasites in some one or more of their many forms 
are responsible for the larger number of failures in this country. 
No part of our land is free from them all. In certain localities 
one form will be the more destructive, in other localities another 
form is to be dreaded. For example, in the corn-belt, the stomach 
worm (Strongylus contortus) is by far the most serious, while in 
the far West, scab is the more troublesome. As a rule, little 
attention is given these parasites ; the flock becomes infested, 
many of the sheep become ill and die, and the others fail to 
thrive, and sometimes the owner does not know what causes 
the trouble. 

While sheep can withstand the cold without suffering much 
inconvenience, they cannot endure the rain or snow that saturates 
their wool, nor dark, damp, and poorly ventilated quarters. Such 
conditions lead to colds, running at the nose, catarrh, inflamma- 
tion, diarrhoea, and all kinds of sheep diseases. From this 
it follows that if sheep are to prove profitable, they must 

232 



Feeding Sheep 233 

be kept quiet, fed nutritious food, and provided with proper 
quarters. 

372. Food requirements of sheep. — The quantity of food 
required by sheep depends on many factors, chief of which are the 
kind of food, and the age, weight, condition, and individuality of 
the animal, as well as the chief product sought, whether wool or 
mutton : — 

Wolff-Lehman Standards showing the Amount of Food required 
per 1000 Pounds Live Weight for Both Wool and Mutton, as 
well as Growing, Mature, and Fattening Sheep 



Condition of Animal 
















F) ,„,„ -NTTTrUDTT^Trr^ 




Growing Sheep, Wool Breeds 


Dry- 
Matter 








Nutritive- 
Ratio 


Age, Mo. 


Weight 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 




4-6 


60 


25 


3.4 


15.4 


0.7 


1 : 5.0 


6-8 


75 


25 


2.8 


13.8 


0.6 


1 : 5.4 


8-11 


80 


23 


2.1 


11.5 


0.5 


1:6.0 


11-15 


90 


22 


1.8 


11.2 


0.4 


1:7.0 


15-20 


100 


22 


1.5 


10.8 


0.3 


1:7.7 


Growing Sheep, Mutton Breeds 












4-6 


60 


26 


4.4 


15.5 


0.9 


1:4.0 


6-8 


80 


26 


3.5 


15.0 


0.7 


1:4.8 


8-11 


100 


24 


3.0 


14.3 


0.5 


1 : 8.5 


11-15 


120 


23 


2.2 


12.6 


0.5 


1:6.3 


15-20 


150 


22 


2.0 


12.0 


0.4 


1:6.5 


Mature Sheep 












Coarse wool .... 


20 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


1:9.1 


Fine wool .... 


23 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


1:8.5 


Breeding ewes with 












lambs 


25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


1:5.6 


Fattening sheep, first 




period 


30 


3.0 


15.0 


0.5 


1:5.4 


Second period 


28 


3.5 


14.5 


0.6 


1 : 4.5 



234 



Animal Husbandry 



Armsby's Standards showing the Digestible Protein and Energy 
required per 1000 pounds llve weight for a sheep of various 
Ages and Weights 



Age, Mo. 


Weight, Pounds 


Digestible Peotein, 
Pounds 


Energy Value, 
Therms 


6 


70 


4.2 


18.5 


9 


90 


2.7 


15.5 


12 


110 


2.1 


12.7 


15 


130 


1.8 


11.5 


18 


145 


1.5 


11.0 



FEEDING THE FLOCK 

373. The flock in summer. — Unlike stock cattle, the flock of 
sheep must receive careful attention in summer as well as in winter, 
particularly in those regions infested with stomach worms, — the 
sheep's greatest enemy. These worms have done more to dis- 
courage the propagation of sheep than all other causes combined, 
especially on the fertile farm lands in the central states. These 
pests seldom trouble sheep in cool regions, or in cold weather. 
Lambs are especially susceptible to attack, the older suffering 
much less and being more easily managed in summer. 

374. Pasture for sheep. — Pastures for sheep need similar care 
to that suggested for cattle pastures. The stand of grass, the 
drainage of the soil, and keeping down of weeds deserve much 
attention. It is even more important that they be kept free from 
weeds, particularly burrs of various kinds, as these are especially 
injurious to the wool, p. 182. 

Sheep thrive on pasture as nowhere else. They are particu- 
larly adapted to grazing short forage, and prefer it, as it is tender 
and juicy. In fact, sheep often keep parts of the pasture grazed 
so closely as to injure the plants, while the grass in other parts 
of the same field is left to grow up and seed. This can be pre- 



Feeding Sheep 235 

vented in part by mowing the entire pasture twice each year. 
The sheep will then pasture on the tender second growth. 

375. Turning to pasture. — Care should be exercised in turning 
sheep to pasture, otherwise some of the flock may be troubled 
with bloat. The extent of the trouble depends much on the con- 
dition as well as the kind of grass, young succulent grass being 
more troublesome than older and riper grass, and alfalfa or clover 
more than blue grass or orchard grass. In regions of much dew, 
alfalfa is likely to be the most troublesome of all. After alfalfa 



... & 



Fig. 99. — Flock of Shropshire ewes. 

becomes woody there is not so much danger from bloating. Mixed 
grasses are also less dangerous. There are many methods sug- 
gested for turning sheep to pasture, but the one suggested on 
page 181 is as good as any. 

376. Change in pasture. — When convenient, an occasional 
change of sheep from one pasture to another will prove advan- 
tageous. On farms heavily stocked with sheep, there are two 
reasons for this : first, the change gives a chance for the fresh grass 
to grow, thereby preventing the sheep from cropping parts of the 
pasture too closely ; and, second, it lessens the danger from para- 
sitic germs by allowing the larvae to die before finding lodgment 
in the sheep's body. More satisfactory results would be obtained 
by dividing large pastures into several small ones, and pasturing 



236 Animal Husbandry 

them in turn from the time warm weather sets in until the cool 
weather of the fall. 

377. Providing shade. — Sheep on pasture should be given pro- 
tection from the sun. They are fond of shade and will seek it. 
The shade tree is not sufficient for sheep, artificial shade being 
much preferred. The objection to the shade tree as a resting place 
for sheep is the danger of parasite infection. 

When the pasture is near the shed or barn, no better shade can 
be provided than to give the sheep the freedom of these quarters, 
which should then be slightly darkened by hanging blankets or 
gunny sacks over the windows. A blanket may be so hung over 
the door that the sheep in passing into the shed will brush the 
flies off their backs. If small sheds are provided in the field, they 
should be placed on runners in order that they may be moved 
from place to place as the sheep are changed from one field to 
another. This plan scatters the manure more thoroughly, and does 
away with much of the evil caused by parasites. These shades 
need be only a roof, and may be made of pine boards, as it is not 
essential that they be rain-proof. They need not be high. Such 
a roof sixteen feet square will provide shade for a flock of forty 
sheep. 

378. The use of sown pastures. — The best way to care for the 
flock in summer, in order to avoid parasite infection, particularly 
with a flock of lambs, is to sow special pasture crops for the flock. 
In this way the owner may have various green forage crops coming 
on regularly at different times, and thus avoid having the sheep 
graze on the same area for any considerable time. It avoids 
practically all danger from the many parasites that attack sheep 
during the summer season. There are many plants that may be 
used as green feeds for summer pasture, chief of which are rye, oats, 
alfalfa, clover, rape, kale, cabbage, turnips, and pumpkins. The 
seeds from the pumpkin are among the best vermifuges known, 
for which reason -the pumpkin ranks high as a succulent food for 
sheep. 



Feeding Sheep 237 

379. The flock in winter. — In winter the flock is entirely 
dependent on the care of the owner, and it must receive more 
careful attention than during the summer. This is the season of 
catarrhs, running at the nose, inflammation, diarrhoea, and the 
like. When convenient, the change from the fields to the yards 
should be made gradually. The flock should be yarded at night 
as soon as the pastures become crisp from night frosts, as frosty 
forage is likely to lead to digestive disorders. Hay should be 
provided in the lot, so that the sheep will not go to pasture hungry 
in the forenoon. If on permanent pasture, or where there is 
much old grass, such yarding is not so necessary, as the sheep 
will feed on the dead grass in preference to the frosty succulent 
grass. 

380. The winter ration. — The feeds that should enter into the 
winter ration will depend on the kind available. If convenient, 
succulence of some kind should be provided. On farms where 
there are silos, nothing is better than corn silage. In the absence 
of silage, roots will serve, some sheep owners even preferring roots 
to silage. The roots suggested for late fall use, such as mangels 
and rutabagas, will serve admirably. Some grain as wheat bran, 
oats, linseed meal, and the like should be fed, particularly to the 
ewes that are to lamb in the spring. Clover, alfalfa, and mixed 
hays constitute the best dry forage. 

381. Exercise. — In order to keep the sheep healthy and thrifty 
they should take exercise daily. This often becomes a serious 
problem in the cold climates when the ground is covered with deep 
snow much of the winter season. It may be advisable to remove 
the snow from parts of the lot, and feed them some dry forage in 
some spot not too near the winter quarters. 

382. Care of the feet. — During the winter season, when the 
sheep are rather closely confined, it is important to watch the feet 
and see that the toes do not grow out too long, as they very often 
do at this season of the year. Long toes should be trimmed. 
The aim in trimming should be to keep the feet natural, so that 



238 Animal Husbandry 

the sheep stands squarely upon them. Lack of trimming is some- 
times responsible for diseases of the feet. 

383. Bedding. — This should be used liberally, otherwise the 
floors will become damp and foul smelling. Sheep lying on damp, 
filthy beds are subject to the same ills as those exposed to draughts. 
Fresh bedding is of greatest importance during the lambing season, 
as damp, filthy quarters are particularly hurtful to lambs and will 
soon prove fatal to them. At this time, fresh bedding should be 
put down daily. This not only increases the healthfulness of 
the sheep-fold, but increases the quantity of valuable manure as 
well. 

FATTENING SHEEP 

Feeding sheep to fatten them differs considerably from feeding 
the flock in general or feeding for the production of wool; it is 
somewhat similar to feeding cattle for the production of beef. 

384. Growing winter lambs. — In recent years a considerable 
demand has developed for winter lambs, particularly in the eastern 
cities. Because of the forced methods of feeding adopted in 
pushing the lambs forward so as quickly to prepare them for 
market, they are spoken of as " hot house " lambs, a term which 
has misled many as to the conditions under which the animals are 
raised. Winter lambs command a very high price on the market, 
particularly from Christmas to Easter. The difficulty in the pro- 
duction of winter lambs is to get the ewes to lamb in the late fall 
and early winter. 

Perhaps the best plan is to choose grade Merino ewes and mate 
with a vigorous pure-bred Horn-Dorset ram in the early spring, 
say in May on being turned to pasture. This should result in 
the lambs being dropped in October, November, and December. 
It is not considered a good plan, however, to have the lambs 
dropped before the ewes go into winter quarters, as the lambs are 
exposed to danger from stomach worms. 

385. The winter quarters for winter-lamb production. — The 



Feeding Sheep 239 

term " hot-house " lambs has led many to think that extra warm 
quarters must be provided, some thinking that artificial heat 
must be used, others that the roof or side of the sheep barn should 
be of glass construction, resembling a green-house. Not only is 
such extra equipment unnecessary, but if the quarters are too 
warm, neither the ewes or lambs will thrive. On the other hand, 
winter lambs cannot be grown if the ewes are exposed to the rain, 
snow, or storm. The winter quarters must be well lighted, well 
ventilated, and free from draughts. There should be sufficient 
window space to make the quarters light and comfortable. Arti- 
ficial heat is entirely unnecessary. 

386. Feeding the lambs. — The ewes should be fed milk-pro- 
ducing foods, such as wheat bran, silage, and clover hay, in order 
that the milk flow be large, but in addition to the dam's milk the 
lambs should be taught to eat grain as soon as they will take to it. 
Some lambs will begin to nibble grain when only ten days or two 
weeks old, and they should be encouraged to do so. A lamb 
creep should be provided. This " creep " consists of a little pen 
with openings so small that the lambs may pass in and out at will, 
but through which the sheep cannot pass. The grain boxes within 
the creep should be flat-bottomed, and placed rather low. The 
first feed put into the trough may be wheat bran, to which has been 
added a little brown sugar. At first it may be necessary to aid 
the lambs by placing some of this mixture on their lips. The 
troughs must be cleaned daily and the food kept fresh. After 
the lambs have learned to eat grain, the following mixtures should 
be used : 40 parts of cracked corn, 50 parts of wheat bran, and 10 
parts of oil meal, coarse ground. This may be varied by adding 
oats, barley, or gluten feed, as circumstances demand. Lambs 
thus cared for should grow rapidly and fatten at the same time, so 
that by the time they are ten to twelve weeks of age, they will 
weigh from 50 to 60 pounds, when they should be slaughtered. 

387. Growing spring lambs. — Because of the difficulty in 
getting ewes to conceive sufficiently early for the growing of winter 



240 Animal Husbandry 

lambs, and the disadvantages of dressing and marketing, many 
sheep owners prefer to grow spring lambs. There is much profit 
in selling lambs afoot in May and June. Usually the highest 
prices are obtained in June, as at this time the supply of winter- 
fed western lambs is exhausted, and the summer-fed lambs are not 
yet on the market in any considerable number. 

The foundation stock and the management should be much the 
same as that suggested in growing winter lambs. The ewes should 
be mated in August, September, and October, as the lambs should 
be dropped in late January, Feburary, and March, not later than 




Fig. 100. — Flock of Southdown lambs. 

March. The lambs should be provided with creeps and fed grain 
in the same manner as advised for winter lambs ; for if they are to 
be marketed in a thick fat condition at the age of four or five 
months, they must be forced from the beginning. It is rather 
difficult to fatten lambs for the spring market if they once lose 
their baby fat. 

Lambs dropped in February and thus cared for should make a 
weight of approximately eighty pounds by the middle of June. 
As this is the weight demanded of this class of mutton, it should 
be the aim of the sheep owner to supply it. When there are several 
lambs, or when one is located convenient to market, it may be 
advisable to make two drafts, selling the larger and fatter ones 
say the first of June, and the remainder of the lamb flock the latter 
part of the month. 



Feeding Sheep 241 

388. Feeding lambs in the fall. — Lambs may be fattened at 
almost any season, but ordinarily the fattening period extends 
from September until the following May. Fall feeding is exten- 
sively practiced both by the farmer who raises his own lambs, and 
by the sheep feeder who buys his lambs either locally or from the 
western range, and fattens them in seventy to one hundred days. 
Fall feeding is practical on pasture, either permanent or sown, 
when supplemented by feeding grain. 

389. Getting the lambs on full feed. — Much care must be 
exercised in getting a flock of lambs on full feed, particularly if 
they are from the range and not familiar with grain. Further- 
more, many of the plants used in fall pastures for fattening lambs 
are likely to produce bloating, and for this reason much care 
must be exercised in turning the flock to pasture, particularly if 
the grass is composed of alfalfa, clover, or rape plants. These 
are most excellent crops for fattening lambs in the fall, but due 
care must be exercised in turning on the sheep. The grain should 
be fed sparingly at first and gradually increased from day to day 
until the full amount is being fed. Most satisfactory results can 
be obtained by feeding the grain twice daily. Care must be exer- 
cised never to feed more than the lambs will consume ; or if there 
is any grain remaining, it should be removed before a new supply 
is placed in the troughs. 

Lambs thus cared for should make rapid and economical gains. 
Under such feeding, 60-pound lambs should attain a weight of 
85 pounds in 75 days, and be sufficiently fat for the market. Thus, 
lambs put on feed September 1 would be ready for the market 
November 15. When the flocks are sufficiently large and the 
sheep feeder is located conveniently near to market, it will, as a 
rule, pay to make two drafts, selling the fattest at the end of about 
75 days, and the remainder of the flock in 90 to 100 days. This 
keeps the two flocks more even, and avoids holding those already 
fat for the slower maturing ones to fatten, and avoids selling a few 
thin in flesh after the majority have fattened. 



242 Animal Husbandry 

390. Fattening lambs in winter. — By far the greater number of 
lambs are fattened during the winter season. The methods 
employed differ fundamentally in different localities. In the 
West, little or no attention is paid to shelter ; in the corn-belt, 
much attention is given to the shelter, at least to protect the lambs 
from the rain, snow, and storm, and to provide them dry footing 
and exercise ; in the East, where lamb-feeding is rapidly develop- 
ing, shelter is considered essential. 

391. Feeding in the semi-arid West. — Large flocks of lambs 
are shipped from the ranges to points where alfalfa hay is available. 
Here the sheep are confined in corrals which are divided into lots 
containing approximately 500 head. No shelter is provided other 
than that furnished by the fence, or the alfalfa hay, which is often 
stacked near by. Rain and snow storms are rather infrequent, 
and it is felt that the loss occasioned by the lack of protection is 
less expensive than shelter. These corrals provide accommoda- 
tions for many thousands of sheep. To save labor in feeding, the 
lots are arranged in rows, with feeding lanes between. In these 
lanes the hay is stacked and fed out each morning and evening. 
Sometimes the fence has a space between the first and second 
boards large enough for the sheep to introduce its head, and the 
rack is arranged on the stack side of the fence. In each lot are 
placed rows of grain troughs sufficient to accommodate the entire 
flock. These lots are provided with water, often pumped by 
windmills, though sometimes by hand or with an engine. Salt 
is kept before the animals at all times. In this way, one man can 
care for 2000 or more head of sheep. 

392. Feeding in the corn-belt. — In the corn-belt the prac- 
tice is entirely different ; few sheep are fed by great numbers 
of farmers. Here feed, both grain and hay, is very abundant, 
but the climate is the objectionable element. Sheep need dry 
coats and dry footing. The dripping skies of the corn-belt 
make this impossible, without providing shelter from the rain 
and snow. 



Feeding Sheep 243 

Much care should be exercised in getting the lambs on full 
feed. The lambs may be fed hay liberally, but the grain must 
be fed sparingly, beginning with one-fourth pound to the head 
daily, and gradually increasing the ration to one pound by the 
time the sheep have been on feed three weeks, and continuing 
until they are getting all they will consume. The lambs should 
not be fed more grain than they will clean up at each feeding. As 
the grain is increased, less hay will be required. Lambs thus 
cared for should make a gain of 25 to 30 pounds in 100 days, 
when they should be fat and ready for the market. If de- 
sired, two droves of lambs may be fed each winter, purchasing 
the first drove in November, and fattening by the last of Janu- 
ary; immediately purchasing a second, and fattening by the 
first of May. 

393. Feeding in the East. — During the recent high price of 
mutton, many lambs have been fed in the eastern part of the United 
States, and the methods are peculiar to the East. 

The feeding pens are usually rectangular in shape, with hay- 
racks and grain-troughs the entire length of either side. These 
grain-troughs are protected with vertical slats, so arranged that 
there is just room for one lamb to feed in each opening, and there 
are just as many of these openings as lambs, and not one more, 
When the lambs are feeding, they are packed solid along either 
side of the pen. The space allowed each pen is approximately 
twice the room on which a sheep stands while feeding. Water 
and salt are supplied in this pen, and the lambs do not leave it 
from the time they are put in until they are finished and ready 
for the market. The lambs are put on full feed in about three 
weeks and forced until fat. 

394. Sample rations for fattening sheep. — The following ra- 
tions are collected from various sources, to furnish a guide in de- 
termining the kind and amount of feed that should be allowed 
fattening lambs. In all cases the rations are calculated for 100 
head : — 



244 



Animal Husbandry 



Weight 


Ration 


Food Pek 
Pound Gain 


Lambs 


Grain 


Dry Forage 


Grain 


Dry 

Forage 


56 1b. 


49 lb. bran 
37 lb. linseed meal 
37 lb. cotton-seed 
meal 


147 lb. hay 
143 lb. roots 


4.5 


5.4 
5.3 1 


110 lb. 


140 lb. soy beans 
10 lb. bran 


180 lb. clover hay 


3.5 


4.7 


109 lb. 


135 lb. corn 
10 lb. bran 


180 lb. clover hay 


3.2 


4.2 


80 1b. 


81 lb. shelled corn 
81 lb. bran 


107 lb. clover hay 


6.4 


4.2 


83 1b. 


164 lb. oats 


140 lb. clover hay 
100 lb. roots 


5.2 


4.5 
3.1 1 


83 1b. 


132 lb. corn 
33 lb. oil meal 


110 lb. clover hay 


4.8 


3.2 


89 1b. 


94 lb. shelled corn 
94 lb. oats 


95 lb. hay 


4.9 


2.5 


62 1b. 


97 lb. cotton-seed 
meal 


97 lb. cotton-seed 
hulls 


3.4 


3.4 


89 1b. 


67 lb. corn 


290 lb. alfalfa hay 


2.2 


10.0 


80 1b. 


80 lb. corn 


Pasture 


1.7 




811b. 


78 lb. oats 


Pasture 


1.9 





1 Roots. 



QUESTIONS 

1. How do the Wolff-Lehman and Armsby standards compare in respect 
to the protein requirement for the growing sheep ? In the Wolff-Lehman 
standards, why is there such a difference between the wool and mutton 
breeds ? 

2. Why do sheep require so much attention ? Why are they so easily 
frightened ? How can we restore confidence ? Why is it of advantage to 
have a few goats in a flock of sheep ? 

3. How can we reduce the ravages of internal parasites to a minimum ? 



Feeding Sheep 245 

Name a good vermifuge and succulent food. Why should extra care be 
used in turning sheep to pasture ? What kind of pastures require greatest 
caution ? Why is the shade tree objectionable in a sheep pasture ? 

4. Why do ' ' hot-house ' ' lambs command so high a price on the market ? 
What class of trade do these lambs fill? Why do not more farmers 
produce them ? During what season of the year are hot-house lambs in 
greatest demand ? 

5. Are the sheep fattened in your vicinity raised in the county ? How 
long does it take to fatten an average mutton sheep ? What are the in- 
dications of a fat sheep? How many fat sheep are shipped from your 
county annually? Where do they go? 

6. Arrange a soiling system for sheep that will fill your conditions. 
How many acres would be required for a flock of one hundred sheep ? 

7. Give the advantages and disadvantages of pumpkins as a succu- 
lent food for sheep. 

8. Of the four sub-classes of mutton sheep, which will make the 
most economical gains ? Explain. 

9. At what age should we begin to feed the young lambs grain? 
For each one hundred pounds of food consumed, at what age will sheep 
make the greatest gain ? Explain. 

10. Give the advantages and disadvantages of Indian corn as a grain 
for sheep ; of oats ; of bran ; of clover hay ; of alfalfa hay and of timothy 
hay. 



CHAPTER XV 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 

Sheep may be successfully grown on any general farm or where 
there is an opportunity for changes in grazing. When the farm 
has the equipment and is located convenient to a railroad lead- 
ing to one of our larger cities, winter-lamb production may be most 
profitable, whereas if the farm lacks equipment, and has much 
cheap grazing land, some other form of sheep production would 
doubtless yield the greater profit. Each farmer must make a care- 
ful study of his conditions, such as location, facilities for shipping, 
demands of his market, condition of the soil, and the like, then lay 
his plans accordingly. 

395. Plan of improvement. — A clearly defined plan should be 
outlined before the farmer makes an attempt at breeding sheep. 
The intending sheep breeder should make a careful study of success- 
ful sheep farms, noting the conditions wherein his differs, and the 
modifications that must be adopted. The farmer who rushes into 
sheep breeding blindly, because the price of wool or mutton seems 
to warrant it, is likely to pay dearly for his experience. 

396. Cooperative breeding. — The value of united effort can- 
not be overestimated in breeding sheep. This does not mean that 
the farmers should be partners from a financial point of view, but 
all should help to advance the interests of each other's flock. Free 
conversation on all matters relating to the flock will prove of com- 
mon advantage; the owners will improve in sheep knowledge, 
and the flocks improve in excellency. There are many things 
that a few sheep breeders would be able to do that one alone would 
hardly undertake. Not least among these is the purchasing of 

246 



Care and Management of Sheep 247 

a pure-bred ram of high grade. The influence of such a ram left 
in the flocks of several breeders would stimulate interest and 
result in improvement. 

397. Choosing breeding stock. — In choosing the foundation 
flock, the farmer must have in mind the demand that he means 
to supply, wool or mutton, and, if mutton, whether he means to 
raise hot-house lambs or older mutton. He should bear in mind 
that in general " like produces like " and that " blood will tell." 
This applies to the ewes as well as to the ram. 

398. Type. — The type depends on the individual preference 
of the breeders. The advisability of selecting wool or mutton 
sheep will depend on the conditions. Mutton is preeminently 
adapted to the corn-belt, although a great many wool sheep are 
found there. Where hot-house and early spring lambs are to be 
produced, Merino and Horn-Dorset blood must predominate. 
Where the grazing land is much broken, some breed other than 
the pure mutton is likely to give best results. For such lands, a 
good grazing breed is demanded. Whatever breed is chosen, 
there should be no further change, for it is indiscriminate and 
zigzag crossing that has produced our present common stock. 

399. Uniformity. — In choosing the foundation flock of breeding 
ewes, no single factor is of greater importance than uniformity. 
The ewes should be uniform in type, weight, quality, and breeding. 
Such a flock will cost slightly more than one not uniform in these 
characters, but will prove much more profitable. Uniformity 
is a market requirement, and when it is wanting in the breeding 
ewes, it will also be lacking in the crop of lambs. When one is 
producing wool, an even, uniform clipping is to be desired. Further- 
more, if the breeder wishes to sell his surplus ewes for breeding 
purposes, they will command a much higher price if uniform in all 
features, both because of their intrinsic worth, and because of their 
improved general appearance. This is well illustrated by the 
Champin Shropshire flock (Fig. 99). 



248 Animal Husbandry 



DIPPING SHEEP 

Dipping the sheep is an essential part of sheep growing. No 
farmer should attempt to raise sheep without planning to dip 
them, not only upon their arrival at the farm, but twice annually 
thereafter. The process is very simple as well as inexpensive. 

400. Importance of dipping. — There are two essential reasons 
why all sheep should be dipped : first, to free them of ticks ; and 
second, to free them of scab germs. It is impossible for lambs 
infected with ticks or other parasites to thrive. A good dip cleanses 
the skin, increases the quantity, and improves the quality of the 
wool. Thus all sheep, whether foundation stock or lambs intended 
for fattening, should be dipped immediately upon their arrival 
on the farm. 

Sheep ticks can be entirely overcome by dipping. Sheep ticks 
inhabit no other farm animals, and once eradicated, there is no 
possible chance of their reappearing, unless brought to the flock 
on infested sheep, or carried in some manner, as in the clothing 
of shearers, from an infested flock. 

Sheep scab can likewise be prevented by dipping. This scab 
is caused by a minute parasite, too small to be seen by the naked 
eye, which irritates the skin, causing a watery exudate. This 
exudate forms a crust beneath which the scab mite burrows, 
greatly irritating the animal, causing loss of flesh, intense itching, 
loss of wool, and the death of the sheep. The mite is transferred 
from one sheep to another, and soon the entire flock is affected. 

Unless well disinfected, sheep are apt to become infected with 
the scab mite in the stock-yards, railroad stock-pens, or in stock- 
cars. As they multiply very rapidly, a few parasites gathered up 
in this way will soon run through an entire flock. When once the 
sheep become affected and scabs formed, the disease is hard to 
eradicate. If it is taken in time, prevention is very easy. 

401. The dipping vat. — The nature of the dipping vat or tank 
will be determined largely by the size of the flock. For a small 



Care and Management of Sheep 249 

flock such as is kept on the average farm, a simple trough of wood, 
metal, or concrete, 16 inches wide at the top and 6 inches at the 
bottom, 4 feet deep, and 8 to 12 feet long, will prove ample. The 
vat must be narrow so the sheep cannot turn around; must be 
deep so they can be plunged clear under and no spot escape the 
dip ; and the longer the vat, the quicker the dipping can be per- 
formed, as each animal should remain in the dip at least one 
minute. The end of the vat at which the sheep enter should be 
perpendicular, so that they may be made to jump into the dip and 
thus be completely submerged. At the other end, there should 
be a gradual incline up which the sheep can walk. 

402. How dips are used. — The dip must be hot. The best 
temperature is that which a man can endure with the bare arm. 
If the dip is too hot, it will scald ; if too cold, it will be less effective. 
The water may be- heated in a large kettle and kept hot by throwing 
red-hot irons or heated stones into the tank. 

The best dip to use is some one of the coal-tar preparations, as 
Zenoleum, Naptholeum, Daytholeum, Milk Oil, and the like. 
These are fairly cheap, very effective, cleansing to the skin, heal- 
ing to diseased eyes and mouth, pleasant to use, and sure death 
to all forms of parasite life. The direction given on the cans in 
which the coal-tar comes is to use at a strength of one part of dip 
to 100 parts water. While this is strong enough to kill ticks, it 
is not sufficient to remove scab germs. When the sheep have first 
arrived or when dipping for scab, use one part dip to forty parts 
water. 

403. Frequency of dipping. — All sheep arriving at the farm 
should be dipped before they infect the lots. In addition to this 
the entire flock should be dipped at least once a year, better twice 
annually. One dipping should take place soon after shearing, as 
less dip .will be required. It should not, however, follow too closely 
after shearing. A pleasant day should be selected, and the sheep 
should be well protected until dry. It will take them several hours 
to dry out. At this time it should not take more than one quart 



250 Animal Husbandry 

of the mixture to a sheep, whereas if the sheep is not shorn, it 
will take approximately one gallon. The second dipping should 
be in the fall, some fair day just before the sheep are placed in 
their winter quarters. This second dipping will pay because of its 
invigorating influence, even though the sheep are free from ticks. 

SHEARING SHEEP 

Formerly it was the custom to wash the sheep before shearing, 
and shear later in the season than at present. This was in the 
days of the spinning wheel and hand loom. The practice of wash- 
ing the wool was continued somewhat later, for it was thought 
that it prepared the wool for the manufacture. This it did not do, 
but it did render the wool lighter by removing the natural oil, and 
hence was a distinct disadvantage to the farmer. 

404. When to shear. — The time for shearing will depend some- 
what on the conditions. If winter lambs are sought, the shearing 
should be done in March or before, whereas, if there is no hurry 
about the lambs, and the sheep are not well protected, the wool 
may be left on until warm weather. With the coming of warm 
weather, the wool must be removed or the sheep will not thrive. 
When at all practicable, early shearing is to be recommended, as 
the sheep will do much better. The amount of wool taken off 
will be greater if the sheep are shorn regularly in March or April 
than if they are shorn in June. 

405. Hand shearing. — Hand shearing requires much skill and 
considerable practice. A good man will shear from 40 to 100 sheep 
in a day, using common hand shears. While each shearer has his 
own method, it is some modification of the following : the sheep is 
placed on its rump, with its back to the shearer, supported by the 
left arm, with the shears in the right hand. The wool is then re- 
moved from the brisket and neck down to the shoulders. The 
fleece is then opened down the abdomen and first clipped on the 
left side as far around as the back bone, and then on the right side 



Care and Management of Sheep 251 

in a similar manner, all the time exercising much care in keeping 
the fleece together. Care must be exercised not to cut too deep 
at one strike, or the sheep will not be smooth. The points of the 
shears must be kept close to the hide, otherwise a second stroke 
will be necessary, which injures the wool and takes much time. 

For the beginner to shear a sheep by hand is really a very 
difficult task, and if the sheep be a fine-wool, the task is still 
greater. 

406. Machinery shearing. — Shearing sheep with a machine is 
a much more easy task than shearing by hand, and the beginner 
can do better work with it. On the market there are both hand 
and power machines, but on the average farm the hand machine 
is, of course, the one to use. To operate the machine requires 
two men or a man and boy, — one to turn the machine, the other 
to shear the sheep. If available, the beginner should take a coarse- 
wooled sheep, as the fine-wools are more difficult to shear. With 
a rather coarse-wooled sheep, one can follow the directions that 
come with the machine, and shear the sheep, even though he has 
never seen the operation (Figs. 101, 102, 103). 

407. Tying the wool. — The fleece is rolled with the belly and 
loose ends inside, the cut ends out. All very dirty pieces should be 
removed and never tied up in the wool. Special wool twine should 
be used to tie the fleece, as binder twine greatly injures the wool, 
for small bits of the fiber often get into the fleece, and, not taking 
the dyes, must be picked out by hand. 

Later, the wool is packed in large sacks for shipment. In filling 
the large bags care should be exercised to see that the wool is 
well packed and the corners all well filled. After being packed 
full the bags are sewed at the top. If stored, the wool should be 
put in a dry place where there is no danger of mice cutting the 
bags and building nests of the wool. 

408. Docking the lambs. — Unless the lambs are to be sent to 
market under three months of age, they should have the tail re- 
moved. The tail is of no use to the sheep and is likely to become 



252 



Animal Husbandry 




Fig. 101. — Shearing sheep by machinery. Shearing the abdomen. 





Fig. 102. — Shearing the back. 



Fig. 103. — Sheep and wool when 
finished. 



Care and Management of Sheep 253 

foul. Docked lambs thrive better than undocked, and they pre- 
sent a fuller and squarer appearance. The lambs should be 
docked at ten days to two weeks of age, or even younger if strong. 
This may be done by severing the tail with a sharp knife, cutting 
from the under side, by the use of a mallet and sharp chisel ; or, 
better still, by the use of docking pincers. 

PRACTICAL SHEEP BARNS 

Proper shelter for the flock adds greatly to its comfort and thrift. 
It need not, however, be either elaborate or costly. In the sheep 
barn there are several factors that must be provided for, but extra 
warmth not being one of the factors, the rest is comparatively simple 
and inexpensive. Chief among the factors for which provision must 
be made are ventilation without draughts, sunshine, drainage, con- 
venience for feeding, arrangements for separating the ewes at 
lambing time, storage for grain and hay, and, if possible, a root 
cellar. 

409. Ventilation. — The ventilation of the sheep barn should 
receive careful consideration. This must be so arranged that there 
are no draughts, as such will result in colds, running at the nose, 
catarrh, and like troubles. Many experienced sheep owners pre- 
fer to ventilate the sheep quarters by placing doors across one side 
of the barn. 

An abundance of sunshine is essential to the well being of the 
breeding flock in winter. Sunshine is nature's greatest disin- 
fectant, and keeps the quarters light and cheery. If the row of 
doors arranged for ventilation is on the south side of the quarters, 
as it should be, it will admit sufficient sunshine on days when the 
doors can be kept open. It is often necessary to close them on 
account of the severity of the weather, just after shearing, or just 
after dipping, and in such cases extra windows are very convenient. 
These may preferably be placed along the south side between the 
doors, as then they will serve their maximum efficiency. 



254 



Animal Husbandry 



410. Drainage. — In selecting a site for the sheep barn, due 
consideration should be given to drainage. Sheep cannot survive 
damp and muddy footing. Wet floors and muddy lots are to be 
avoided. If possible, select ground from which there is a little 
slope in all directions, facing the barn to the south and arranging 
the lots on the south slope. It would be of much advantage to 
have the place protected on the north and west by a grove or bluff. 

411. The interior arrangement. — In arranging the sheep 







Pf~^ 






S&NlWw 



--■ '--. ,:£: 



m 



WM 



V ,s< 




PW 



Fig. 104. — Interior view of sheep barn. 



quarters, convenience of feeding must be kept in mind. This 
factor is often complicated by the desirability of having provision 
for separating the ewes at lambing time. As a rule, it is more diffi- 
cult to feed the sheep in two lots than in one. This difficulty can 
often be overcome, in large part at least, by using the feed-rack 
as a partition for the two pens. Such an arrangement also saves 
the material otherwise necessary for the partition. To facilitate 
labor in feeding, ample provision should be made for storage of all 
feed, hay, and straw in the loft, grain in a bin on the ground floor, 
and if possible, a cellar for the storage of roots. Where convenient, 
water should be placed in the barn (Fig. 104). 



Care and Management of Sheep 255 

The size of the sheep barn will depend entirely on the number 
of sheep in the flock. Experienced sheep owners do not agree as 
to the amount of space required, some stating that ten square 
feet is sufficient, others that they desire eighteen square feet for 
each animal. In practice, twelve square feet of floor space will 
be ample for each breeding ewe. 

412. The feed-racks. — Movable feed-racks are to be preferred. 
They should be comparatively long and narrow. The racks may 
be used in different places if desired. In many modern sheep 
barns, the combination hay-rack and grain-trough is used, al- 
though it is better to have the two arranged separately. When 
it comes to forced feeding, as in fattening lambs, the combination 
rack has the objection that more or less dirt filters down into the 
grain-troughs, and the sheep with their dainty appetites do not feed 
as well as when the grain-troughs and the hay-rack are separated. 

413. Quantity of bedding. — Bedding should be used very 
liberally in both the sheep barn and at least a part of the lot. A 
fresh supply should be put down every few days. 

414. The sheep lot. — If possible, the sheep should at all times, 
except in the very severest of winter weather, have free access to 
a small lot. If this is dry, and a part well bedded, the sheep will 
spend much of their time outside and will be much benefited 
thereby. The lot should not be muddy. Where sheep are allowed 
to tramp in the mud, trouble from foot-scald is likely to result ; 
particularly is this true if there is much sheep manure mixed in 
the mud. Foot-scald is usually known as foot-rot. This disease is 
hard to eradicate. 

A straw stack in the sheep lot has many advantages. It keeps 
the sheep out of the wind, provides them a clean place to lie, and 
they will eat of the straw to some extent. It has the disadvan- 
tage, however, that the chaff gets in the wool, and for this reason is 
objected to by many good sheep owners. Yet ewes and lambs 
delight in lying alongside such a stack, and they will be found 
there more often than in the barn, except in very severe weather. 



256 Animal Husbandry 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many sheep are there in the United States? How many in 
your state ? In your county ? How does your state rank with other states 
in the production of sheep? How does your county rank with other 
counties in the state ? Name the ten leading sheep states. Which states 
possess the largest number to the square mile ? To the farm ? 

2. In selecting breeding stock to improve the quality of the sheep, what 
are some of the essential factors to be considered ? Why is uniformity of 
first importance in the mutton flock ? 

3. Name the more common external parasites that trouble sheep. 
How may they be prevented ? 

4. Why are sheep no longer washed before shearing? Which is 
more efficient, hand or machine shearing ? How many sheep can a man 
shear by hand in a day ? How many with the machine ? What influences 
the number of sheep one can shear in a day ? Why should the fleeces be 
of uniform weight ? 

5. Which type of sheep, wool or mutton, requires the warmer quarters ? 
Why ? How much barn space should be allowed for each sheep ? Why 
is it essential that sheep be provided with facilities for exercise ? 

6. Name the ten largest sheep markets in the United States. How 
many sheep are handled at each annually ? 



PART FOUR— SWINE 




1. Snout. 

2. Eye. 

3. Face. 

4. Ear. 

5. Jowl. 

6. Neck. 

7. Shoulder. 

8. Fore leg. 

9. Hind leg. 



Fig. 105. —Points of the pig. 

10. Breast. 19. Rump. 

11. Chest line. 20. Belly. 

12. Back. 21. Ham. 

13. Loin. 22. Stifle. 

14. Side. 23. Hock. 

15. Tail. 24. Pastern. 

16. Fore flank. 25. Dewclaw. 

17. Hind flank. 26. Foot. 

18. Hip. 



258 



CHAPTER XVI 

BREEDS OF SWINE 

Theee are two distinct types of swine : the lard type, noted for 
the production of thick fat; and the bacon type, known for the 
production of bacon. 

415. Lard type. — Swine of this type far outnumber those of the 
bacon type in America. As a type, the lard-hog has reached its 
highest development in the corn-belt of the United States. This 
is often called the American type of hog, and is not looked upon 
with favor by people of other countries because of its extreme fat 
development. 

The lard-hog should be compact, with the body very wide and 
deep. The shoulders should be full although not coarse, with 
the hindquarters or hams carried out straight to the tail-head, and 
well fleshed down to the hock. Since the valuable cuts lie along 
the back, rump, and quarters, the general conformation of the lard- 
hog should be similar to that of the fat steer. The flesh covering 
should be thick and evenly distributed throughout the body, 
particularly over the shoulders and quarters. The size and weight 
are determined largely by the market conditions. Formerly very 
heavy hogs were in demand, but at the present time pigs weighing 
from 225 to 250 pounds will command the highest price, all other 
conditions being equal (Fig. 106). 

416. Bacon type. — The true bacon type of hog is little grown in 
the United States. Denmark, Great Britain, and Canada furnish 
most of this class of pork. In recent years the American breeders, 
particularly those east of the corn-belt, have given this class of 
swine some active consideration, but its production is not likely to 
make much headway in America. We prefer the rapid-fattening, 

259 



260 



Animal Husbandry 



heavily fleshed, and early-maturing lard type. In contrasting 
the general appearance of the bacon type with the lard type, we 
note that the body of the former lacks the width of the latter, the 
shoulders and hams are lighter and longer, the body is somewhat 
longer, and the animal stands on somewhat longer legs. The 
weight of the bacon hog is not so great as of the lard type, American 
markets preferring 155 to 195 pounds and the Danish markets 
160 to 220 pounds (Fig. 114). 

There are several breeds belonging to each of these types. 
There are also a number of breeds that rank intermediate between 
the typical lard and the typical bacon types. We will, therefore, 
consider the breeds of swine under three general classes ; the pure 
lard breeds, the intermediate breeds, and the pure bacon breeds. 

PURE LARD BREEDS OF SWINE 

The Name, Native Home, Relative Size, Position of the Ear, and 
Color of each of the Breeds of Pure Lard Swine 



Name op Breed 


Native Home 


Size 


Position of 
Ear 


Color 


Poland China . 


United States 


Medium 


Drooping 


Black 


Berkshire . . 


England 


Medium 


Erect 


Black 


Duroc Jersey . 


United States 


Medium 


Drooping 


Red 


Chester White 


United States 


Large 


Drooping 


White 


Hampshire 


America 


Medium 


Erect 


Black, belt 


Essex .... 


England 


Small 


Erect 


Black 


Small Yorkshire 


England 


Small 


Erect 


White 


Suffolk 


England 


Small 


Erect 


White 



417. Poland China lard-hog. — This breed was developed in 
southern Ohio, particularly in the counties of Warren and Butler 
along the Miami river valley. The origin is not clearly under- 
stood, but it is known that several foreign breeds entered into the 



Breeds of Swine 261 

early improvement. The chief strains used were the Russian, 
Byfield, Big China, Irish Gragier, and the Berkshire. Besides the 
Warren County hog, previous to 1816, two strains were known in 
the Miami valley, the Russian and the Byfield. When these were 
imported is not known. 

The Russian hog is described as possessing superior length and 
height, with rather large but fine bone, and quiet temperament. 
The color was white, and the hair long and coarse. 

The Byfield hog was of two types, one rather large, with long, 
flat ribs and lopped ears ; the other, more refined, with ears point- 
ing forward. Both types were white in color. 

The Big China hog was introduced into Butler County in 1816. 
John Wallace, a trustee of the Shakers' Society of Union Village, 
shipped one boar and three sows from Philadelphia. The members 
of the Shakers' Society did much toward developing the Poland 
China. 

The Berkshire hog was introduced to the Miami valley in 1835. 
Munson Beach of Lebanon shipped some hogs of this breed from 
New York State. The Berkshire improved the symmetry and 
increased the early-maturing quality. It also gave the black 
color to the Warren County hog. 

The Irish Gragier hog was imported to Warren County from 
Ireland, in the fall of 1839, by William Neff. The Neff stock is 
described as possessing considerable size, a long body with superior 
back, very fine hams, and white color. It is stated that no 
foreign blood has been used in the development of the Poland China 
since 1845. The modern Poland China hog owes its excellence to 
selection, judicious mating, and better care on the part of breeders 
generally. 

418. Description of Poland China hog. — The color is black, 
with six white points — white in the face, on the feet, and tip of the 
tail. The head is of medium length, and the face straight. The 
cheeks are full ; the ears drooping ; the body broad and deep, but 
with a curved back and low rump ; superior hams, and short legs. 



262 Animal Husbandry 

The Poland China meat has been subject to criticism because of 
the rather large amount of external fat, although the American 




Fig. 106. — The Poland China. Lard type. 

trade does not object to this, and the price is the same as for other 
breeds (Fig. 106). 

419. Berkshire lard-hog. — This breed was developed in Eng- 
land, notably in the counties of Berkshire and Wilts. Little is 
known of the origin, although Berkshire has long been known as 
a swine-raising county. The old Berkshire was very much coarser 
than the present type, and possessed lopped ears. The color was 
a sandy or reddish brown, spotted with black. Even in its unim- 
proved state, the Berkshire hog had a reputation for producing 
a good quality of meat. 

The early improvement of the Berkshire was due to the use of 
Chinese, Siamese, and Neapolitan blood. These crosses served to 
lessen the size and to improve the coarseness of the old Berkshire, 
so as to render it more suited to the demand which has arisen for 
small and delicate pork. The more prominent of the early breeders 
were Richard Astley and Lord Barrington. Later William Hewer 
of Sevenhampton, Wiltshire, was a leading breeder. The breed 
owes its present improvement to selection and care on the part of 
Berkshire breeders generally, American as well as English. 



Breeds of Swine 



263 




Fig. 107. 



The Berkshire, 
type. 



Lard 



420. Berkshire compared with Poland China. — These two 
breeds are somewhat similar in general characteristics though dif- 
fering widely in details. In color they are much the same, being 
black with six white points. The head of the Berkshire is short 
and the face gracefully dished ; the ears are carried erect or pointed 
straight forward ; the body lacks the breadth and depth of the 
Poland China, but the back is 
level and fairly straight, with long, 
level rump. The entire back out- 
line shows much less arch than is 
characteristic of the Poland China 
(Fig. 107). 

The general quality of the Berk- 
shire is held in high esteem, as 
is also the quality of the meat. 
When properly fed, the meat has 
a fine grain and a desirable blending of fat and lean, spoken of 
as marbling. For this reason the breed stands high in public 
favor. 

421. Duroc- Jersey lard-hog. — This breed developed in the 
United States, and, as is the case with so many of our domestic 
breeds, little is definitely known of the early origin. Red or sandy 
colored pigs have existed in this country for a great many years. 
It is stated that slave traders imported red hogs from western 
Africa. These were known as the Guinea breed. As early as 1837, 
Henry Clay imported red hogs from Spain, commonly known as 
Spanish red hogs. In 1852, Daniel Webster introduced red hogs 
from Portugal to Massachusetts. The old Berkshire, which was 
frequently marked with red, may be responsible for some of the 
red pigs found in America. 

Whatever the origin, it is certain that a large breed of red hogs 
attained considerable prominence in New Jersey, which was sub- 
sequently known as Jersey-Red. This breed possessed large lop 
ears ; a rather long, deep body ; with coarse bone and bristly 



264 Animal Husbandry 

hair. It was valued because of its size, strong constitution, and 
rapid growth. 

At the same time the Jersey-Red was being developed, a similar 
breed was being formed in Saratoga County, New York. This 
breed subsequently became known as the Duroc. This strain owes 
its origin to Isaac Fink, who procured a red boar and used it on his 
common sows with great success, so that his herd became very 
popular. The Durocs were finer in bone and carcass than the 
Jersey-Reds. 

The present Duroc-Jersey breed is the result of the amalgamation 
of the blood of these two strains. This union was due largely to 




m%n 



Fig. 108. — The Duroc-Jersey. Lard type. 

the efforts of Colonel F. D. Curtis of Saratoga County, New 
York. He was a very influential breeder and did much to promote 
the amalgamation. 

422. Duroc-Jersey compared with Poland China. — In many 
respects these two breeds are similar, although there is striking 
contrast in color, the Duroc-Jersey being always red, and the Poland 
China black. The head of the Duroc-Jersey is of medium length, 
and the face straight or slightly dished, the ears are of medium 
size and droop forward, and the body is broad and deep, with the 
back less arched than in the Poland China. Under similar con- 
ditions, the general quality and the quality of the meat compares 
favorably. When corn fed, both are too fat for foreign trade 
(Fig. 108). 



Breeds of Swine 265 

423. Chester White lard-hog. — There are three strains of 
Chester Whites, each with a somewhat different origin. 

(1) The original Chester White. — This strain first became prom- 
inent in Chester County, Pennsylvania, where white hogs have 
existed for many years. They were, perhaps, introduced by the 
earliest settlers. Captain James Jeffries, who in 1818 imported 
a pair of white pigs from England, is commonly spoken of as the 
founder of the strain. Later, Harvy Atwood introduced Chinese 




Fig. 109. —The Chester White. Lard type. 

stock from England to Delaware County. The stock from the 
Jeffries and Atwood herds were blended together, along with the 
common swine, which resulted in the original Chester White 
strain. 

(2) Todd's Improved Chester White. — This strain was developed 
in Connecticut and Ohio. The Todd Brothers of Connecticut 
purchased a black and white boar imported from England in 1827, 
and known as Norfolk Thin Rind. This boar was mated with 
a white sow of undoubted Irish Gragier blood. In 1830, the Todd 
Brothers moved to Ohio, taking with them these two hogs, which 
served as foundation stock. S. H. Todd, a son of one of the Todd 
Brothers, was allied with the improvement of this strain for over 
forty years. 



266 Animal Husbandry 

(3) The Ohio Improved Chester White. — This strain developed 
near Salem, Ohio. It owes its origin to L. B. Silver, who in 1865 
began breeding Chester Whites with a view of producing a superior 
type. 

424. Chester White compared with Poland China. — The for- 
mer is larger than the latter and can always be distinguished by 
the color. The head of the Chester White is of medium length, 
and the face straight ; the ears are large and drooping ; the body 
lacks the width and depth of the Poland China, but the back is 
straighter. Common with all white swine, the skin is subject to 
sunscald and scurfiness, especially when exposed to a hot sun and 
dry weather. In quality of meat the Chester White ranks in- 
termediate between the Poland China and the Berkshire (Fig. 109). 

425. Hampshire lard-hog. — This breed, formerly known as 
Thin Rind, was developed in America. The name was changed 
to Hampshire by order of the American Thin Rind Association, 
in 1904. The American history of this breed traces back through 




-u->. 



Fig. 110. — The Hampshire. Lard type. 



Canada and Massachusetts to Hampshire and Essex, England. 
About 1820 to 1825, MacKay imported Thin Rinds from Hamp- 
shire, England, to Boston, Massachusetts. Later, these hogs found 
their way to Kentucky. Some of these animals were taken to 
the central states, where the breed has been greatly improved by 
careful selection. 



Breeds of Swine 267 

426. Hampshire compared with Poland China. — These breeds 
can readily be distinguished by the characteristic color markings 
of the Hampshire, which is black with a white belt around the 
body at the girth. The head of the Hampshire is of good length, 
with the face straight ; the ears, though erect, incline slightly for- 
ward and the body lacks the breadth, depth, and length of the 
Poland China. This is due in part at least to the fact that the 
Hampshire was formerly classed as a bacon-hog. During recent 
years, its success in the pure lard classes warrants classifying it as a 
pure lard-hog. The statement is made that the quality of the meat 
is not surpassed by any other of the pure lard breeds (Fig. 110). 

427. Essex lard-hog. — This breed was developed in Essex 
County, England, where there formerly existed a rather small, 
roach-backed, flat-ribbed, slow-maturing hog of a nervous dis- 
position. Improvement was begun by Lord Western, who, in 1830, 
imported a pair of black Neapolitans from Italy to Essex County, 
England. This Neapolitan cross gave most satisfactory results. 
Berkshire and Black Suffolk blood was also used. Later, Fisher 
Hobbes, a tenant of Lord Western, became interested in the breed 
and did much to improve the Essex. In England, the Essex is 
often spoken of as Small Black or Black Suffolk. 

428. Essex compared with Poland China. — The former is much 
smaller than the latter, and possesses certain very distinguishing 
features. The color is entirely black. The head is short, the 
face slightly dished, while the ears are small, fine, and carried erect. 
The Essex is a short, thick, deep, chunky type of pig, with short, 
fine-boned legs. The meat is fine and of good flavor, but possesses 
a tendency to excessive fatness. 

429. Small Yorkshire lard-hog. — This breed was developed in 
England, where it is known as Small White ; the name Small York- 
shire being of American origin. The breed is thought to be of 
Chinese origin, though different at present from the early Chinese 
type. As early as 1818, Robert Collings and Charles Mason, both 
Shorthorn breeders, interested themselves in the improvement of 



268 



Animal Husbandry 



the Small White, then known as the Chinese. Many types or 
strains of the Small Whites have been developed in England, but 
at present they are all classed as one breed. In general symmetry 







Fig. 111.— The Small Yorkshire. 

this breed is almost perfect, but carries too much fat and is rather 
small (Fig. 111). 

430. Suffolk lard-hog. — There are two distinct breeds of this 
name, one in America, the other in England. The American 
breed is white, the English breed black in color. In England, 
Essex, Small Black, and Black Suffolk are synonymous terms for 
the same breed. The American Suffolk is no doubt of the same 
origin as the Small Yorkshire or Small White of England. 



INTERMEDIATE BREEDS OF SWINE 

The Name, Native Home, Relative Size, Position of Ear, and Color 
of Each of the Breeds Intermediate between Pure Lard and 
Pure Bacon 



Name op Breed 


Native Home 


Size 


Position 
of Ear 


Color 


Cheshire .... 
Victoria .... 
Middle Yorkshire . 


United States 
United States 
England 


Medium 
Medium 
Medium 


Erect 

Drooping 

Erect 


White 
White 
White 



Breeds of Swine 



269 



431. Cheshire hog. — This breed developed in New York State. 
The origin is obscure. About 1855, two Yorkshire hogs of the 
middle class were imported from England to Jefferson County, 
New York. These were crossed on sows from Cheshire, England. 
Later, White Suffolk blood was mingled with this cross. A. C. 
Clark of Belleville did much to promote the interests of the breed. 
In 1870 he won the Packers' Prize of $500 for the best pen of pigs 
exhibited at a fair at St. Louis, Missouri. This breed is bred to-day 
primarily in New York State. 

432. Description of the Cheshire. — In general conformation 
this breed ranks intermediate between the pure lard type and the 




Fig. 112.— The Cheshire. 



bacon type. It lacks the massiveness of the former, and the length 
and depth of the latter. The color is white. The head is of medium 
length, and the face slightly dished, the ears are small, fine, and 
stand erect, the body is of medium width, depth, length, and slightly 
arched, and the shoulders and hams are well developed. The gen- 
eral quality and the quality of the meat is unexcelled. The lean 
and fat are well interspread, giving the meat a marbled appear- 



270 Animal Husbandry 

ance. When properly fed, the Cheshire produces excellent bacon 
(Fig. 112). 

433. Victoria hog. — There are two strains of Victorias, each 
with a different origin. 

(1) The Davis or Indiana Victoria. — This strain was originated 
about 1870, in Lake County, Indiana, by G. F. Davis, who com- 
bined the blood of the Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, 
and Suffolk. These breeds were crossed, and then careful selection 
practiced to secure a definite type. The descendants of this 
strain secured the ascendancy, and represent the Victoria breed 
at the present day. 

(2) The Curtis or New York Victoria. — This strain was origi- 
nated about 1850, in Saratoga County, New York, by F. D. Curtis, 
who first combined the blood of the Irish Gragier and the Byfield, 
and then crossed their descendants with the Yorkshire. Careful 
selection was exercised until a type was established. 

434. Victoria compared with Cheshire. — In general conforma- 
tion, the former resembles the pure lard type to a greater extent 
than the latter, being thicker set, broader, and deeper, standing 
on shorter legs. Both breeds are white. The Victoria has a 
rather short head and a medium dished face, ears small and carried 
erect, shoulders and hams thick and full, and length and depth 
of side meat, which ranks second to that of the Cheshire in 
quality. 

435. Middle Yorkshire hog. — This breed was developed in 
England where it is termed Middle White. It was originated 
from a cross between the Large White and the Small White breeds. 
The Middle White resembles in many essentials and even in size, 
the Large White. Its head is shorter and heavier, face more dished, 
and ears erect. It does not make such rapid growth when young, 
although it fattens as quickly after the age of six months. The 
Middle White also has a tendency to lay on a larger proportion of 
fat to lean flesh, thus improving the meat. 



Breeds of Swine 



271 



PURE BACON BREEDS OF SWINE 

Name, Native Home, Relative Size, Position of Ear, and Color of 
Each of the Pure Bacon Breeds of Swine 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Size 


Position op Ear 


Color 


Large Yorkshire 
Tamworth . 


England 
England 


Large 
Large 


Erect 
Erect 


White 
Red 



436. Large Yorkshire bacon-hog. — This breed was developed 
in Yorkshire county, England, where it is known as Large White. 
The early origin is obscure, but the breed undoubtedly descended 
from a race of large, coarse-boned, leggy, white hogs that was com- 
mon in Yorkshire and adjacent counties over a century ago. 




Fig. 113. — The Large Yorkshire. Bacon type. 



Marked improvement began about the middle of the nineteenth 
century, by using the White Leicesters on old Yorkshires. These 
Leicesters are described as large, with small heads, erect ears, fine 



272 Animal Husbandry 

hair, and light bone. This cross was still further improved by 
breeding the largest and best young sows to Small Yorkshire boars 
that possessed great fattening capacity. Joseph Tuley of Keighley 
was the foremost of these early improvers. His herd of Large 
Whites was very popular, and his animals commanded a high price. 
It is not too much to say that the Small White, with its fine bone 
and easily fattening tendencies, produced a very marked improve- 
ment in the old Yorkshire, which has been still further improved 
and brought up to its present high standard of excellence by judi- 
cious selection in the hands of skillful breeders. 

437. Description of the Large Yorkshire. — This is one of the 
largest breeds of swine. The conformation is typical of bacon- 
hogs in general ; that is, upstanding, comparatively narrow, deep 
and long, with light shoulders and hams. The color is white. 
The head is of medium length and the face dished, the ears of 
medium size and carried erect, although with age they are inclined 
to droop, and the body is long and deep, but lacks breadth. 

In the production of bacon, the Large Yorkshire ranks second 
to none. In Denmark, England, Ireland, and Canada, where 
bacon is an important industry, the Large Yorkshire and its 
crosses is the most common blood used (Fig. 113). 

438. Tamworth bacon-hog. — This breed was developed in 
central England, notably in Stafford and near-by counties. The 
origin is uncertain. As first known, it was a long-legged, narrow- 
backed, and late-maturing type. Whether improvement was 
brought about solely by selection, or whether cross-breeding was 
resorted to, is not known. The improvement followed the con- 
version of England into cultivated lands, as the farmers needed a 
less active type of swine. The statements that crosses were made 
with White and Neapolitan strains meet with disfavor. F. C. 
Fidgeon, who had known the breed for over sixty years, is inclined 
to the opinion that the Tamworth owes its present excellence 
solely to selection and better care. 

439. Tamworth compared with Large Yorkshire. — These two 



Breeds of Swine 



273 



breeds are about equal in size and somewhat similar in general con- 
formation, though differing widely in detail characters. The 
Tarn worth is red. The head is notably long, and the snout tends to 
be narrow with straight or slightly dished face, the ears are com- 
paratively large and should be carried erect, though, with age, they 
often droop ; the body is similar to that of the Large Yorkshire, 




Fig. 114. — The Tamworth. Bacon type. 

being long, deep, and narrow, and the shoulders and hams are 
light and long. The bacon ranks high, but is second to that of the 
Large Yorkshire (Fig. 114). 



QUESTIONS 

1 . How many pure-bred swine are there in your vicinity ? What breeds 
are the most common? Why? 

2. Give the name of a few of the leading swine exhibitors at your state, 
county, and town fair. What are some of the prices obtained for the prize- 
winning stock ? 

T 



274 Animal Husbandry 

3. Why has America, particularly the corn-belt, been so successful in 
developing breeds of lard-hogs? Why has England been so successful 
in developing bacon breeds? What type is most common in Canada? 
Why? 

4. Contrast the eight breeds of lard-hogs in respect to early maturity 
prolificacy, quality of meat, and general quality. 

5. Is there a relationship between the size of a hog and the rate of 
maturity or the quality of the meat ? 

6. Contrast the pure lard, intermediate, and pure bacon breeds in 
respect to fertility. Explain the variation. 

7. Why is the fancy character — white belt about the body — of the 
Hampshire likely to prove a detriment to the breed ? 

8. Has color among swine any relation to sectional adaptability ? 
Explain. 

9. Classify the breeds of swine according to size. Name the principal 
disadvantages of the very small and very large breeds. 

10. Name the breeds of swine formed by crossing two or more varie- 
ties. Name the advantages and disadvantages of this method of breed 
formation. 



CHAPTER XVII 

JUDGING SWINE 

In judging swine, as in judging all other classes of meat animals, 
the butcher's preference must be the leading guide. This prefer- 
ence is determined largely by the demands of the market. The 
condition of the animal, its weight, quality, and uniformity are 
among the most important points. 

440. Score-card for swine. — Each breed of swine has its own 
scale of points, varying in detail and numerical value, but similar 
to the following in general characteristics. (See p. 276.) 

GENERAL APPEARANCE OF LARD-HOGS 

441. Form. — The general form of the lard-hog is of primary 
importance. It should be compact, with the body deep, broad, 
smooth, and symmetrical. The length should be medium, as too 
long a back is likely to result in weakness just back of the shoul- 
ders. The hog should have the larger part of its weight in the 
region of the most valuable cuts ; that is, along the back, loin, 
and hams. While the forequarters, neck, and head are parts 
of lesser value, they must show much development in order to 
insure constitutional vigor and vitality, which is largely controlled 
by chest capacity. The chest, therefore, should be broad, deep, 
and carried well forward. This development gives the hog a 
parallelogram development similar to that desired for beef cattle 
(Fig. 115). 

442. Weight and condition. — The weight will depend largely 
on the condition, and as these determine the market value they 
will be considered together. Formerly, heavy hogs, those weigh- 

275 



276 



Animal Husbandry 



STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 
Lard-Hogs 



Scale of Points 



Standard 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



General Appearance, 30 per cent 

Weight, score according to age 

Form, deep, broad, medium length ; smooth, compact, 
symmetrical ; standing squarely on medium short 
legs 

Quality, hair smooth and fine ; bone medium size, 
clean, strong ; general appearance smooth and 
refined 

Flesh covering, finished ; deep, even, mellow, free 
from lumps and wrinkles 

Head and Neck, 8 per cent 

Snout, medium length, not coarse 

Eyes, not sunken, clear, not obscured by wrinkles 

Face, short ; cheeks full 

Ears, fine, medium size, attached neatly .... 

Jowl, full, firm, neat 

Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder 

Forequarters, 12 per cent 

Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact on top . 

Breast, full, smooth, neat 

Legs, straight, short, strong ; bone clean, hard ; pas- 
terns short, strong, upright ; feet medium size . 

Body, 33 per cent 

Chest, deep, wide, large girth 

Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length .... 
Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and evenly 

covered 

Loin, wide, thick, strong 

Belly, straight, smooth, firm 

Hindquarters, 17 per cent 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 

Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 

Ham, heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, wide 
Legs, straight, short, strong ; bone clean, hard ; pas- 
terns short, strong, upright ; feet medium sized . 



Total 



10 



10 



100 




Judging Swine 277 

ing from 400 to 500 pounds, commanded the highest price, but at 
the present time the market demands a much lighter hog. While 
market demands are exceedingly variable, in general the most 
desirable weight is from 180 to 275 pounds, though heavier hogs 
sometimes command a premium on the market. 

443. Quality. — The indications of quality are fine hair, free- 
dom from bristles, and a comparatively light, dense, and clean 
bone. Fineness of the parts in general is an evidence of quality. 
This is often overdrawn, as too 
much fineness leads to delicacy, 
which sometimes results in the hogs 
being too small, facial features too 
fine or small, and the bone fine to 
the point of weakness. On the 
other hand, hogs with coarse bone, 
coarse hair, and coarse hide are Fig. ii5. — Lard-hog of good type, 
likely to be poor feeders, and the 

butcher objects to them because of the large percentage of offal 
which they dress. In addition to being rather fine and free from 
bristles, the hair should lie close to the body and the skin be free 
from wrinkles and undue roughness caused by scurf. 

444. Constitution. — The indications of a good constitution and 
much vigor are a deep, broad, and well-advanced chest, thus 
giving capacious chest capacity and good heart girth. The chest 
should be deep from the top of the shoulder to the brisket, which 
should be placed low down; it should be wide, as indicated by 
much width between the front legs, and the brisket should be well 
advanced between the front legs. The flank, both front and rear, 
should be full and well let down, as this also indicates good con- 
stitution. 

445. Uniformity. — One of the most important general con- 
siderations in choosing a herd of swine, either for breeding or feed- 
ing, is the uniformity. While this adds nothing to their ability to 
make economic gains, it does add materially to their selling value. 



278 Animal Husbandry 

The butcher will very often pass by a mixed drove of hogs, even 
though they are of good quality and in good flesh, refusing to 
place a bid on them merely because he lacks the facilities for han- 
dling such mixed lots. Separate them into uniform droves, and he 
is attracted to them at once, and will pay an extra premium for 
the same animals he refused to bid on before. 



DETAIL CHARACTERS OF THE LARD-HOG 

446. Head. — No facial character among any class of farm 
animals is more variable than the hog's snout. In some breeds, 
notably the Tarn worths and Hampshires, the snout is very long 
and straight from the ears to the tip of the nose ; in other breeds, 
as the Yorkshires, it is long and dished ; while in others it is short 
and straight, as in the Poland China ; and in still others it is short 
and very much dished, as in the Berkshires. The eyes should be 
wide apart, clear, and prominent. Folds of fat about the eyes, 
while rather common, are very objectionable. The ears should be 
of medium size for the breed and fine in texture. The way the ear 
is carried depends on the breed. Whatever the carriage, ears 
should be neatly attached to the head. Large and coarse ears are 
usually associated with heavy, coarse bone, and are, therefore 
objectionable on any breed. 

447. Jowls. — The jowls should be firm, smooth, of medium size, 
and not pendulous. Jowls that are flabby, owing to the excessive 
amount of fat, are very objectionable. They should be firm, 
indicating an intermixture of lean meat. The size of the jowls is 
rather a breed characteristic, being rather large in the Poland 
China and Berkshire, and rather small in the Tarn worth and 
Hampshire. The medium-sized jowls for the breed are to be 
preferred. They should be free from heavy folds, not pendulous 
and loose. 

448. Neck. — The neck should be of medium length and possess 
sufficient width and depth to swell smoothly into the shoulder and 



Judging Swine 279 

pass back without any noticeable depression. A neck too thick 
and too heavy is objectionable because it indicates general coarse- 
ness and increases the relative percentage of cheap meat. 

449. Shoulders. — Shoulders should be long, full, and level on top. 
While long shoulders are not necessarily correlated with a deep 
chest or constitutional vigor, they give the hog a more symmetrical 
appearance. They should be full, especially at the lower end, 
which is often a weak point, and just forward of the shoulders in 
the region known as the shoulder-vein. The shoulder should not 
be too heavy, as it is a comparatively cheap cut, nor should the 
skin be too thick and heavy, as this indicates reversion to ancestral 
types, because these parts were abnormally developed in the wild 
hog as a protection in fighting. 

450. Back and loin. — These should be of moderate length, 
straight, broad, and evenly fleshed throughout. They should be 
very carefully considered, as the back and loin furnish some of the 
most valuable cuts. Here pork chop and pork roasts are secured. 
The back should be strong, and this can best be obtained by moder- 
ate length, as too long a back is likely to be weak, particularly 
just back of the shoulders. It should be straight, or, better still, 
slightly arched, gradually rising from the neck to the center of the 
back, and from there sloping very gradually to the tail. There 
should be no depression or sway in the back from the shoulder 
to the tail. The back should be broad, and this breadth should 
be evenly maintained from the shoulder to the tail. The flesh 
covering should be even and firm, giving a smooth carcass when 
slaughtered. 

451. Sides. — The sides should be as long as possible and yet 
maintain sufficient strength of back. They should be deep and 
thick. The ribs should be well arched and continue low down, giv- 
ing feeding capacity. The underline should run straight from front 
flank to rear flank, giving the side an even width throughout its 
entire length. Sides should be firm and smooth, and free from 
wrinkles and flabbiness. The sides should be even with the hams 



280 Animal Husbandry 

and shoulders, and carry the fullness well down, giving the animal 
a symmetrical and well-balanced appearance. 

452. Rump. — This should be long, wide, and fairly level. It 
should be long so as to increase the length of the ham. . The width 
should be carried back proportionately with the back, as a peaked 
rump is very objectionable. Narrow, peaked rumps mean thin 
hams, which do not sell well in the market. As a rule, hogs droop 
considerably from the hips to the tail ; nevertheless the nearer the 
rump approaches the level, the better the cuts of meat will be. 
The rump should be evenly and smoothly fleshed from hips 
to tail. 

453. Hams. — The hams should be wide, deep, and plump. 
Viewing the pig from behind, the hams should be wide from between 
the legs to the outside ; viewing from the side, they should be deep, 
that is, long from the tail downward and fleshed well down to the 
hock. Such a conformation will give a long, wide, and plump 
ham when slaughtered. Often the hams lack fleshing above the 
hocks, the region being bare and thin, which results in a poor ham 
when slaughtered. The flesh should be firm, indicating that there 
is not too much fat, as very fat hams are not desired on the market. 
Extra fat hams sell at low prices. 

454. Legs. — The legs should be short, straight, strong, tapering, 
and well placed. Knees that are considerably bent, or " bucked 
knees," and hocks that are very much cramped, are common de- 
fects among swine. Crooked knees, those which come too close 
together, and hocks too close, are all too common. Another very 
serious objection, particularly among fat-hogs, is the tendency of 
their pasterns to break down, leaving the animal to walk on the 
dew-claws. Although common, and often among the very best 
bred hogs, this is very serious and always to be guarded against. 
Sometimes the underline slants upward from the front to the hind 
flank, due to the hind legs being longer than the fore legs. This 
should not be. 



Judging Swine 281 

JUDGING BACON-HOGS 

455. Condition. — The flesh is not so thick as on the lard type 
of hog, rarely exceeding one and one-half inches, but it must be 
firm, smooth, and even over all parts. It should be firm, as this 
indicates the presence of lean meat ; it should be smooth and free 
from wrinkles and seams, as smoothness indicates even fleshing 
and good quality; and the flesh covering should be even over 
all parts of the body in order that the cuts of bacon may be 
uniform. 

456. Form. — The form should be long, level, and deep. It 
should be long in order to give length to the side cuts ; it should be 
level and free from sway back ; and it should be deep in order to 
increase the percentage of side meat. The shoulders and hams 
should be light and the animal of uniform width from the shoulders 
to the hams. Width is not sought, but both length and depth are 
of prime importance. The form should appear trim and neat, 
and the animal be free from all coarseness in hair, hide, and 
bone. 

457. Sides. — Among bacon-hogs, the sides are of prime impor- 
tance, as the choicest bacon comes from this region. It is, there- 
fore, essential to have as much as possible of the desired weight 
in this region. The sides should be long, smooth, and level. 
From shoulder to ham should be as long as possible without in- 
creasing weakness, thus giving long side cuts ; they should be 
smooth and free from wrinkles and seams ; and they should be 
level from shoulders to hips. A swaying back or a too pendulous 
belly are very objectionable. 

458. Market classes of swine. — On the market, swine are 
divided into classes according to weight and condition. While 
these classes are exceeding variable between the different mar- 
kets, yet the following table will give an idea of the nature of 
the classification. Each sub-class is divided into a number of 
grades. 



282 



Animal Husbandry 



Class 



Sub-Class 



Prime Heavy Hogs, 350-500 lb. 

[ Heavy Butchers 
Butcher Hogs, 180-350 lb 



Packing Hogs, 200-500 lb. 



Light Hogs, 125-220 lb. 



280-350 lb. 
Medium Butchers, 220-280 lb. 
Light Butchers, 180-220 lb. 
[ Heavy Packing, 300-500 lb. 
Medium Packing, 250-500 lb. 
Mixed Packing, 200-280 lb. 

f England, 160-220 lb. 

\ United States, 155-195 lb. 
Light Mixed, 150-220 lb. 
Light Light, 125-150 lb. 



Bacon 



459. Cuts of pork. — The diagrams which follow show very 
clearly the parts of the animal from which the cuts are taken 
(Fig. 116). 




1. 


Head. 


5. 


Belly. 


2. 


Shoulder. 


6. 


Ham. 


3. 


Back. 


7. 


Ribs. 


4. 


Middle cut. 


8. 


Loin. 




Fig. 116. — Diagrams of cuts of pork. 



QUESTIONS 
1. In judging, how do we estimate the age of swine since an examination 



of the mouth is practically impossible ? 
swine? 



How do we estimate quality in 



Judging Swine 283 

2. Why are wrinkles so objectionable in swine? Where do they occur 
most frequently? Why is too much refinement objectionable among 
swine ? Why is coarseness about the shoulder so objectionable in swine ? 

3. When judging swine in the show ring, how are they held ? Is this 
difficult, particularly in a class of old males ? 

4. Classify the various breeds of swine according to color. Why is 
white objectionable in the south? Why is a reddish tint objectionable 
on a Poland China ? 

5. Why are fancy color markings objectionable, especially such as in 
the Hampshire breed of swine ? 

6. Name the breeds of swine that are likely to possess poor feet. Why 
are some breeds more susceptible to poor feet than others ? 

7. Classify the breeds of swine into two classes, according to the posi- 
tion of the ear, one in which the ears are carried erect and the other in 
which they are lopped. Has this characteristic any relation to general 
quality among swine ? 

8. Of the three sub-classes of butcher hogs, which will make the most 
economical gains ? Explain. 

9. Which is American bacon not popular in England? Why is 
Candian bacon preferred ? 



CHAPTER XVIII 



THE FEEDING OF SWINE 



No farm animal equals the hog in turning food quickly into 
marketable meat ; and none has yielded more profit to the aver- 
age American farmer. In health, no farm animal is more easily 
cared for than the hog; it requires little shelter and will eat 
any article of food placed at its disposal. From this it would 
seem that the hog is the most economical meat-producing animal. 
This is true during health. The effort should be, then, so to feed 
and manage the herd as to keep it in good thrift at all times. 

Wolff-Lehman Standard, showing the Amount of Food required 
per 1000 Pounds Live Weight for Both Growing and Fattening 
Swine 



Condition op Animal 




















Growing Swine, Breeding 


Dry- 
Matter 








Nutritive- 
Ratio 


Age, Mo. 


Weight 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 




2-3 


50 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


4.0 


3-5 


100 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


5.0 


5-6 


120 


32 


3.7 


21.3 


0.4 


6.0 


6-8 


200 


28 


2.8 


18.7 


0.3 


7.0 


8-12 


250 


25 


2.1 


15.3 


0.2 


7.5 


Growing Swine, Fattening 












2-3 


50 


44 


' 7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


4.0 


3-5 


100 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


5.0 


5-6 


150 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


0.6 


5.5 


6-8 


200 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


6.0 


8-12 


300 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


6.4 



284 



The Feeding of Swine 285 

460. Food requirements for swine. — The food required for a 
given gain among swine varies with the kind of food and the age and 
weight of animals. Foods vary largely in the energy they contain. 
The older and the larger the animal the more food required for a 
given gain. 

PREPAKING FOOD FOR SWINE 

Foods for swine are often prepared by grinding, soaking, or 
cooking. There have been many experiments to determine the 
efficiency of each of these methods. These tests give more or 
less contradictory results, and it is difficult to determine from a 
perusal of the literature to what extent the food is rendered more 
efficient by such preparation. There can be little doubt, however, 
but that each of these methods increases the efficiency of certain 
foods under given conditions. 

461. Grinding feed. — The advisability of grinding feed for 
swine depends much on the kind of food and to some extent on the 
age of the animals. Most of the experiments have been with the 
grinding of corn, and the results have been varying. With smaller 
and harder seeds and grains, such as peas, beans, millet, and the 
like, there is a much better showing in favor of grinding. The 
Canadian Central Experimental Farm conducted experiments 
which show a saving of 17 per cent in favor of grinding these 
smaller and harder seeds. The same may be true of corn when the 
grain is very hard and dry. 

462. Soaking the feed. — It is a rather common practice to 
soak whole grains and to wet meals before feeding. Soaking is a 
less expensive process and in many instances may be as good as 
grinding. One rather strong objection to feeding soaked grains, 
especially when the animals are used to eating the grains whole, 
is that they are likely to swallow the grains entire without mas- 
tication. Soaking or wetting is, however, a very cheap method 
of preparing hard grains for swine, by rendering them more palata- 
ble and adding succulence. 



286 Animal Husbandry 

463. Cooking the feed. — As a general practice, cooking food for 
swine is no longer regarded as profitable. In fact, cooking certain 
foods renders some of the nutrients less digestible. Cooking feeds 
for swine, however, has many advantages, chief of which are that 
it softens small and hard seeds ; increases the succulence and to 
some extent the palat ability of certain dry grains, such as peas and 
beans ; reduces the water content of certain other feeds, such as 
roots and tubers, which contain more water than swine can econom- 
ically use ; and renders foods more uniformly mixed. Further- 
more, cooked foods do not sour so readily, and the hard grains or 
particles of feed become thoroughly softened. It is considered 
best to put a variety of foods into the cooker. 

464. Feeding the pigs. — At about three weeks of age, the pigs 
are likely to begin to nibble at their mother's food, to bite at the 
grass, and perhaps try to root. This indicates that they are 
acquiring an appetite, and they should be encouraged to take food 
other than that supplied by the mother. Place a small trough in 
one corner of the lot or pen, and arrange a fence across the corner, 
so the sows cannot have access to it, but the young pigs can. 
Into this trough a little sweet milk may be poured three times 
daily. Do not provide more than the pigs will drink at once, and 
never leave the milk to sour in the trough, as digestive disorders 
and death are sure to follow. In a few days, replace the milk 
with a small amount of bran and shorts, scalded and made into 
a gruel. 

465. Weaning the pigs. — With pigs fed as suggested above, the 
weaning process is easy and simple. As the pigs learn to rely 
more on the extra food, the mother's milk-producing food should 
be cut down so that she will not be in the height of her flow when 
the pigs are taken away. The age to wean pigs varies, but, as a 
general rule, it is safer to say the best age for weaning is between 
seven and ten weeks. 



The Feeding of Swine 287 

FEEDING THE BREEDING HERD 

Feeding the breeding herd differs essentially from fattening. In 
feeding the herd the object is to keep the animals in a healthy and 
thrifty condition. Flesh formation is to be encouraged and 
fattening discouraged. If the breeding herd is permitted to be- 
come too fat, the animals fail to breed regularly, the litters are 
small, and the dangers from disease are increased. Feeding the 
breeding herd naturally divides itself into two parts, summer and 
winter feeding. 

466. Feeding the herd in summer. — It is the common practice 
to confine the breeding herd in too crowded quarters. This close 
confinement and a too exclusive grain feeding account for much of 
the shy breeding among many of the more prominent breeds. 
Another serious mistake is the too liberal use of corn. While 
no food equals corn for fattening swine, it is not a good grain for 
the breeding animals, and its too exclusive use is a common cause 
of barrenness or of small litters. 

Ample room should be provided. Nothing is better than 
pasturing or soiling. Soiling is likely to involve too much labor 
on the average American farm, but in such cases there is usually 
an abundance of pasture. When on pasture the breeding herd need 
receive no grain until a short time before farrowing, when grain 
should be fed sparingly. The well-fed sow will be more quiet at 
farrowing time and be less likely to injure her pigs than will the 
lean gaunt one lacking in milk. When grain is fed, the kind will 
depend somewhat on the kind of pasture ; but as a general rule 
nothing is better than wheat bran or middlings, as it is rich in 
protein and mineral matter, two elements much needed by the 
developing pigs. Furthermore, bran stimulates the flow of milk, 
which is very essential for the sow with a large litter. 

467. Pasture for swine. — Swine may be turned to any pasture 
land that is available, — permanent or sown pasture. When 
properly ringed, they arc no more injurious to pastures than any 



288 Animal Husbandry 

other farm animal. Since the common pasture plants are not 
available before warm weather, it is often of advantage to pro- 
vide an earlier forage. Rye sown somewhat early in the fall makes 
an excellent substitute for pasture grass, early the following spring. 
Among the permanent pasture grasses, blue grass comes on very 
early and provides much succulence throughout the season. 
Clover, alfalfa, and cowpeas are unexcelled as swine pasture in the 
regions where they thrive. For a quick growing crop, rape is prob- 
ably to be accorded first place. 

468. Roots for swine. — Roots are valuable as a food for swine 
during the late fall and winter months. They are mainly desired 
because of their stored succulence and to serve as a substitute 
for pasture. In the United States, roots have not been so com- 
monly used as in Canada or the Old Country, though of late years 
they have increased in favor, and their usefulness, especially in the 
corn-belt, is being recognized. Sugar-beets, mangels, ruta-bagas, 
turnips, and carrots are grown as food for swine. Of these, many 
prefer mangels largely because of their high yield per acre, although 
they will not give as good results as sugar-beets. 

469. Pumpkins and squashes. — These are much relished by 
swine in the late fall and early winter. In addition to their suc- 
culence the seed is very rich in protein; thus they make a very 
good supplement for corn. Pumpkin seeds are a natural vermi- 
fuge. When many pumpkins are fed, the animals should be 
watched closely to see that they do not get an overfeed of seed 
and digestive disorders follow. 

470. Feeding the herd in winter. — More care must be given the 
feeding of the herd in winter than in summer ; although if roots or 
other succulent food has been provided, the matter will be less 
difficult than if the farmer is obliged to rely entirely on dry feeds. 
The cheapness and the great abundance of corn really adds to the 
difficulty of wintering the herd. The great temptation all through 
the corn-belt is to feed a too exclusive corn ration. This difficulty 
is increased by the fact that no food equals corn in the fattening 



The Feeding of Swine 289 

of swine ; and the majority of swine feeders let the herd run with 
the fattening swine, with the result that the breeding herd gets so 
fat that its breeding powers are materially lessened, the sows often 
become barren, and those that do breed farrow small litters of 
pigs lacking thrift and vigor. 

To avoid such difficulties, the breeding herd must be separated 
from the fattening swine and fed a growing ration rather than a 
fattening ration. The object should be to keep the herd thrifty, 
but not fat. This can best be done by feeding such grains as 
wheat bran, middlings, and the like; also roots, pumpkins, and 
skim-milk for succulence. Alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay in small 
quantities may be fed with profit. Hay should be fed from a rack 
and not thrown upon the ground, as the animals will tramp it 
under their feet. When the hay is clean and sweet, and slightly 
salty, the swine will eat it and be much benefited thereby. 

When the grain is fed in the form of meal, better results will 
be secured by mixing with water, or better still skim-milk, and 
fed as a mash. If skim-milk is used, much care should be taken 
not to feed the animals too much, as they will take on flesh rapidly 
and may become too fat. A very good mixture is made by using 
one part meal to five parts of water or skim-milk. 



FATTENING SWINE 

In fattening, the sole object is the economic production of pork. 
As a rule, the animals are forced to the limit of their ability as 
feeders, fattened and marketed under one year of age. In this 
respect pork production is somewhat similar to beef production. 
The same general factors apply in both cases. 

471. Feeding the lard-hog. — If light hogs are to be the prod- 
uct, the fattening process will begin much earlier in the life of the 
animal than if heavy hogs are to be produced. Feeding for fatten- 
ing naturally divides itself into two parts, winter and summer 
feeding. 




290 Animal Husbandry 

472. Feeding the lard-hog in summer. — ■ As a rule, swine should 
be fed in comparatively small droves. It is very important that 
the drove be made up of individuals of the same age as well as 
the same size. If a few of the individuals are larger and stronger, 
they will crowd the smaller and weaker ones back and get more 
than their allotment of the food. 

Whatever food-stuffs are used, the swine should be put on full 
feed slowly. Fattening swine make better returns for the food 

consumed when their appetites are 
kept keen; they wait eagerly for 
their food and relish it much bet- 
ter than when overfed. If conven- 
ient, they should be fed both mash 
and dry grain. Nothing makes a 
better food for swine than meal and 

Fig. 117. —A thick, fat porker. skim-milk. 

Swine will make much better re- 
turns for the food consumed if they have access to green forage. 
Where fattening hogs are turned to pasture, it must be so ar- 
ranged that they need not graze over too large an area. If at 
all convenient, it will be more profitable to cut the green forage 
and feed to the hogs. In this way a smaller area will support a 
large number of hogs, and the swine need not rustle to get the 
much needed succulence. 

It is very important that fattening swine be provided with shade 
and an abundance of cool, fresh water. The sebaceous glands of 
the hog are very rudimentary, and the animal cannot perspire 
and therefore must keep cool by radiation. This is one reason 
why hogs desire mud wallows, and for best results these must be 
provided, particularly for thick, fat animals, which suffer greatly 
with the heat during the warm summer months. To avoid the 
extreme heat of summer many swine feeders plan to have the 
animals fat by the first of July, when they are sold. 

473. Feeding the lard-hog in winter. — When roots or other 



The Feeding of Swine 



291 



succulence is available for winter use, much better results can be 
obtained than if dry feed alone must be depended on. Sugar- 
beets, roots, turnips, potatoes, artichokes, and pumpkins are 
often used. No succulence exceeds skim-milk for winter feeding. 
In the absence of any other succulent food, mashes should be 
made, as suggested for summer feeding. For best results, mash 
or succulent food, grain, and a small amount of dry forage should 
be fed. Sweet, clean clover or alfalfa hay should constitute the 
dry forage. It should be fed from a rack. 

Care should be exercised in providing dry quarters and lots as 
free from mud as possible. The warmth of the quarters best 
suited for fattening swine may depend somewhat on the feeds 
used. When corn, in one of its many forms, as ear corn, shelled 
corn, corn meal, and the like, constitutes the major part of the 
ration, the quarters need not be so warm as when an abundance 
of more succulent food is fed, such as skim-milk. 

474. Feeding the bacon-hog. — In the production of bacon, 
the foods must differ from those used in feeding the fat-hog. In 
some cases the same food-stuffs 
may be used in part, but the mix- 
ture must be varied. Corn, the 
mainstay in the production of the 
fat-hog, cannot be used with suc- 
cess in larger proportions than one- 
third of the grain ration. A larger 
proportion is likely to produce an 
undesirable quality of bacon. The 
foods very largely used are shorts, 
oats, peas, barley, and skim-milk, 
most used, especially in Canada, where bacon production finds 
much favor. It is often fed ground or soaked. Usually it is 
fed in connection with small amounts of other food, as peas, 
oil meal, finely ground oats, tankage, and the like. Peas are 
used to a considerable extent in the production of bacon in 




Fig. 118. —A 



well-finished bacon- 
hog. 



Barley is perhaps the food 



292 Animal Husbandry 

Canada. " Canada pea-fed bacon " has good market reputation. 
Among some large bacon feeders, however, peas are not held in 
high estimation, the statement being made that they give dry, 
rather hard, and flavorless bacon. Oats are often objectionable 
because of their hulls, which contain little nutrition and much 
crude fiber ; yet when the price is low, they are extensively used. 
Crushing the oats is considered the best method of preparation. 

Skim-milk is held in high esteem by the bacon feeder ; therefore 
localities devoted to dairying other than market milk are admirably 
adapted for the production of bacon. It may be fed in the same 
proportion as to the fat-hog, — that is, three to five parts milk 
to one of meal. 

475. Summer feeding on pasture. — Clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, 
or rape are excellent pastures for bacon production. Less pro- 
tein-rich grain or less skim-milk is required when the swine have 
access to such ranges. No cheaper or more economical gains can 
be obtained than from a light grain ration when the animals have 
these pastures. 

476. Winter feeding in dry-lot. — Bacon production during 
the winter season is approximately 25 per cent more costly than 
feeding on pasture. For best results, some succulent food should 
be supplied. This may be furnished by growing roots, such as 
sugar-beets, mangels, turnips, and the like, and storing them for 
winter use. When the animals are confined to a dry-lot, more 
portein-rich food is required, which calls for larger amounts of 
oil meal, shorts, tankage, or skim-milk, most of which must be 
purchased. This balancing is very essential in the production of 
bacon, as quality is what commands the extra price. The lean 
and fat must be well interspersed, and this can be secured only 
by properly balancing the ration. 

477. Sample rations for swine. — To give sample rations for 
horses, cattle, and sheep is a comparatively simple matter, but 
such is not the case with swine. The composition and amount of 
the ration are influenced by the age and weight of the animal. 



The Feeding of Swine 



293 



For 100 pounds live weight, the younger the animal the more food 
required, and in addition it should contain more protein than for 
the older animal. To gain an idea of the efficiency of various 
grain mixtures, the following data are taken from Bulletin 65 of 
the Missouri Experiment Station : — 

Feed and Gains in Weight, 90 Days 



Ration 



Corn meal 5 parts, linseed-oil meal 1 

part 

Corn meal 10 parts, linseed-oil meal 1 

part 1 

Corn meal 10 parts, linseed-oil meal 1 

part 

Corn meal 2 parts, wheat middlings 1 

part 

Corn meal 4 parts, wheat middlings 1 

part ' . 

Corn meal 2 parts, ground oats 1 part . 
Corn meal 4 parts, ground oats 1 part . 
Corn meal 4 parts, wheat bran 1 part . 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn meal 

Soaked shelled corn 

Shelled corn, bone meal 2 

Shelled corn 



Initial 
Weight 


Final 
Weight 


Daily 
Grain 

per 
Head 


116 


260 


5.6 


131 


209 


7.6 


118 


209 


5.3 


114 


226 


5.3 


117 


213 


5.0 


120 


173 


3.7 


111 


166 


3.8 


111 


188 


4.4 


112 


135 


3.0 


115 


183 


4.2 


115 


172 


3.6 


114 


153 


3.0 


115 


152 


3.0 



Daily 
Gain 



Head 



1.5 

1.5 

1.5 

1.2 

1.1 
0.6 
0.6 
0.9 
0.3 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 



Sixty days. 



.2 pounds bone meal per head in ninety 



QUESTIONS 

1. Which is the more economical meat producer, beef cattle, mutton 
sheep, or swine ? Why ? When slaughtered, which dresses the highest 
per cent of edible meat ? Explain. 

2. Why is it more profitable to prepare food for swine than for any 
other class of farm animals ? What are the common methods of prepara- 
tion ? Which is the more economical ? Why ? 



294 Animal Husbandry 

3. Why is it often difficult to give swine their food, particularly when 
the food is placed in a trough ? 

4. Wherein does feeding the breeding herd differ from feeding the fatten- 
ing herd ? Explain. 

5. At what age is a young pig likely to eat more than is good for him ? 
How can this be prevented? What is the objection to exclusive corn 
feeding ? 

6. How can swine be prevented from rooting ? What pasture grasses 
are they most likely to destroy ? How many hogs can be pastured on one 
acre of land ? What factors influence this number ? 

7. How many carloads of fat swine are shipped from your vicinity 
each year ? Where do they go to ? Approximately what is the average 
weight ? 

8. Why do fat swine often refuse to stay in their shed even in the sever- 
est of weather ? Why do fattening swine need an abundance of fresh air ? 
Has this an effect upon the amount of food required to fatten swine? 
Does the quarters affect the rate of gain ? 



CHAPTER XIX 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 

Aside from the various points on care and management dis- 
cussed in the chapter on feeding, special attention is now given 
to improved sanitation and equipment. Many of the common 
diseases that often prove fatal to swine are due entirely or in a 
large measure to carelessness or indifference in management. It 
is well known to swine breeders that few hogs are free from lice. 
These vermin are blood suckers, and in a very short time they 
produce a weakened condition of the animal, thereby rendering 
it far more susceptible to other diseases ; even cholera is more 
virulent and more deadly when the herd is infested with lice. 

Since swine are reared and finished in one place, if success is 
to be attained, the feeder must be a breeder as well. Many good 
swine feeders often fail to exercise proper judgment in breeding. 
Breeding swine is as much a business as feeding swine, and should 
be conducted with that understanding. When the price of hogs 
is high, the tendency is to rush into swine raising, forgetting the 
advantages of good quality, with the result that in a few months 
the hog market is glutted with animals of inferior quality which, 
of course, command only a low price. 

478. Plan of improvement. — Before formulating a plan for breed- 
ing swine, we will have to decide upon the kind of hog we are 
going to breed. Some will wish to breed market hogs only, others 
breeding hogs only, while still others may wish to produce both mar- 
ket and breeding hogs. When market hogs only are to be produced, 
grades may prove as profitable as pure-bred animals, especially if 
much care is taken in the production of the grades, and a pure-bred 

295 



296 Animal Husbandry 

boar is used. On the other hand, if breeding hogs are to be pro- 
duced, pure-bred animals only can be grown with profit. This 
calls for much knowledge of the principles of breeding, such as 
selection, mating, and the like. Another question that will modify 
the plan is the amount of capital available for the establishment 
of the business. When the capital is small and the experience 
wanting, the grade herd is to be preferred. The beginner may well 
start with not more than two or three sows, in pig when purchased, 
as he can acquire much valuable experience with even so small a 
number, while his risk will not be great The second year he may 
add to the number of sows, secure a suitable and pure-bred boar, 
and each succeeding year carefully increase the number of sows 
bred. In this way, one should soon find himself in possession of 
a large herd, and of sufficient knowledge to put it to profitable use. 

479. Cooperative breeding. — Pure-bred boars are likely to be 
costly, and to be profitable they should be kept in constant use. 
Since the average farmer does not possess sows enough to get 
the maximum use of the boar, it is often a good plan for a 
number of farmers to cooperate in the purchase of a boar. Such 
cooperation not only reduces the cost of service, but aids in in- 
creasing the uniformity of the animals in a locality. Furthermore, 
when a number of farmers cooperate in the purchase of a hog, a 
much better animal can be secured than if each purchases on his 
own account. 

480. Selecting breeding stock. — Many practical questions 
enter into the selection of swine for breeding purposes. As a 
general rule, the animals chosen should be rather large for the 
breed to which they belong. In the past few years there has been 
a tendency to reduce the size of market hogs, and this has extended 
to the brood sows, with the result that many of the sows now used 
for breeding are decidedly too small for the farrowing and raising 
of two large and strong litters of pigs each year. Probably the 
greatest fault of improved swine breeding is the striving for too 
great refinement. If large litters of strong pigs are to result, the 



Care and Management of Swine 



297 




298 Animal Husbandry 

sows must possess much size and length and a good constitution, 
as shown in sufficient width and depth of the chest region. 

481. The type. — A consideration of prime importance in the 
selection of a breed or type is the likes and the dislikes of the 
breeder. One is much more likely to succeed with the animals he 
likes and to fail with other animals of equal merit that he dislikes. 
Other than this there is little to choose, as each breed has its weak 
and its strong points. In some sections, however, certain breeds 
will remain the most popular because of their adaptability to the 
climate. Thus in certain parts of the United States, especially 
the West and South, white hogs are not looked on with favor be- 
cause they are more liable to be sun-scalded, to have scurvy, 
and often mangy skins. Again, in the corn-belt, bacon types 
doubtless will never be most popular because the available food 
is not such as to produce bacon. 

482. Uniformity. — In selecting animals for the breeding herd, 
it is very important that they be similar in age, size, color, con- 
dition, and quality. The importance of this similarity among 
market swine cannot be overestimated. To get animals that 
will remain uniform, it is essential to know something of the herd 
from which they come. A herd noted for its uniformity is likely 
to produce animals that are uniform. In addition to the uniform- 
ity, the herd should be prolific. The sows should farrow and 
raise two litters of six or more pigs each year. Prolificacy is 
hereditary. A prolific herd is likely to produce prolific animals. 

483. Dipping swine. — To free the hogs from lice or other 
vermin, all newly acquired hogs should be dipped immediately 
upon arriving at the farm in much the same way as suggested for 
sheep, p. 248. The hogs should not be permitted to infect the 
quarters or lots before dipping. The same dipping-vat as that 
suggested for sheep may be used, as well as the same coal-tar prep- 
aration, although the solutions may be used somewhat weaker 
for swine. All stock hogs should be dipped at least twice each 
year, or whenever they become infested with lice. 



Care and Management of Swine 299 

Good results are reported from the use of a self-dipping device. 
This device consists of a shallow vat about ten inches deep and 
eight to ten feet square. It is built of two-inch plank and placed 
near by or convenient to the well or large water-tank. The vat 
is filled about three-fourths full of water and one quart of dip 
added. The dip is renewed about once in two weeks and the 
water supplied as needed. During the muddy season, the tank 
should be cleaned and a fresh start made. The liquid may be 
removed in a few minutes with a scoop shovel. The hogs wallow 
in this at will, and they do not seem to mind the dip ; when the 
water is fresh they often drink small quantities of the liquid. 
This keeps the hogs free from lice and skin diseases and helps to 
keep down worms, cholera, and other swine plagues. 

SHELTER FOR SWINE 

Some one has fittingly said, " The hog does not need a palace 
or an upholstered cage, nor does he prosper in a dungeon." Oc- 
casionally much money is uselessly expended in the construction 
of a large and expensive building which is in use only a part of the 
year; more often, however, swine are housed in a hole in the 
straw stack or in a shed constructed from fence rails or poles and 
covered with straw or fodder. Such places are dungeons. There 
is no ventilation, they are dark and damp in wet weather, and soon 
become filthy dens of infection. 

As with the barn for other farm animals, the hog barn should 
be well ventilated, well lighted, well drained, and dry, serviceable, 
and sanitary. Any structure that answers these conditions will 
prove fairly satisfactory. Convenience and adaptability should 
be considered in constructing the hog-house. In general, hog- 
houses are of two types : large houses, or those accommodating a 
considerable number of hogs ; and small individual houses or cots. 

484. The large hog-house. — There are almost as many types 
of large hog-houses as there are swine breeders or feeders who 



300 



Animal Husbandry 



have built them, each having its advantages and disadvantages. 
When properly constructed, the large hog-house is serviceable, 
sanitary, and convenient ; but, if properly constructed, they are 
expensive, especially since they are only used a part of the year. 
It is difficult to locate them accessibly to the pastures, particularly 
in case sown pastures are used, which are likely to be on various 
parts of the farm. Furthermore, when many sows are housed 
in close proximity to each other, if one is disturbed or molested 
in any way, all the others are likely to become fretful ; and when 
feeding is begun in one part of the house the other animals become 
uneasy and often injure their litters. 

485. The individual hog-house. — Of late years the small 
individual hog-house has become very common. These small 

houses are constructed on 
runners so they can be moved 
from one field or lot to 
another. They are well 
adapted to accommodate a 
sow and her litter, and a few 
of these " cots," as they are 
often called, set side by side 
afford excellent shelter for a 
drove of hogs. The Wiscon- 
sin Agricultural Experiment 
Station has issued a bul- 
letin devoted chiefly to the 
construction of these small 
houses, and from which we quote : " The portable hog-house is 
easily and economically constructed ; it can be easily moved and 
located wherever desired ; it is useful to the general farmer and to 
the breeder of pure-bred stock ; and of all systems of housing swine 
it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the simplest workman- 
ship is necessary to build the portable house, and much old lumber 
can be worked into it " (Fig. 120). 



Is 





Fig. 120. — The individual hog-house. 



Care and Management of Swine 301 

486. The hog lot. — The lot in which hogs are quartered should 
be such as can be kept clean. A filthy and carelessly kept lot 
encourages disease by providing lodgment for the germs ; and 
constant cleanliness is the most effective means of preventing 
germ dissemination. Where disease germs have once been es- 
tablished, an absolutely thorough disinfection is essential to 
eradicate them. To facilitate cleanliness and disinfection, at 
least a part of the lot should be paved with brick, stone, or con- 
crete. On this pavement the cots may be placed during the winter 
season, and on it the feeding may be done. 

487. Hog-wallows. — Some very successful breeders heartily 
favor hog-wallows, while others equally as successful are much 
opposed to their use. Those who are outspoken in opposition to 
the wallow have perhaps been influenced from infections due to a 
filthy wallow, or from infections at the time of an outbreak of 
cholera. There can be no doubt that filthy wallows are often a 
source of danger, nor can there be any doubt that once a cholera 
hog wallows in the water, however clean, all other hogs wallowing 
in or drinking this contaminated water are likely to contract the 
dreaded disease. 

On the other hand, with the healthy herd there can be no ob- 
jections to a clean mud wallow, and there are many advantages 
to be derived from it. During the heat of summer the hog cools 
mainly by radiation, and a cool mud bath is very soothing; it 
cleans the scurf from the skin and enables the hog to find protec- 
tion from the flies. This wallow or mud bath should be so ar- 
ranged that fresh water may be added as needed, and, to insure 
absolute freedom from all germ life, a quart of coal-tar dip may be 
poured into the wallow occasionally (p. 299). 

488. Diseases of swine. — While swine are not ordinarily 
considered as being subject to so great a variety of diseases as 
horses, cattle, or sheep, they are very often attacked by ailments 
far more serious than afflict any other class of farm animals. 
Chief of these diseases are cholera, swine plague, and tuberculosis. 



302 Animal Husbandry 

Throughout the corn-belt of the United States, the loss caused 
by these diseases among swine is not equaled by any other class of 
diseases to which farm animals are subject. They are all con- 
tagious or infectious, and therefore with proper sanitary methods 
they can be prevented, although when the animal once becomes 
afflicted, there is no cure. It is the ravage caused by these diseases 
that makes pork production such a hazardous business. Some- 
times the swine breeder or feeder will have a drove of swine ready 
for the market, when they will contract one of these diseases and 
the entire herd be taken in a few weeks. 

489. Hog cholera. — Hog cholera is an infectious disease of 
swine. It exists in all sections of the United States, but is par- 
ticularly prevalent in the corn-belt. In that section, it is the most 
dreaded disease to which swine are subject. Not so many animals 
are condemned at the large packing houses because of this disease 
as are condemned because of tuberculosis, but this is due to the 
nature of the disease. With cholera, the hogs die or recover* 
quickly, while with tuberculosis they may linger for months. 
Cholera varies in its virulence ; sometimes comparatively few hogs 
that have it will die, while at other times nearly every animal in 
the entire herd will succumb to the disease. When the disease 
once appears, it spreads very rapidly, not only among the animals 
of a herd, but across the country from one farm to another. 

490. Prevention of cholera. — Up to the present time, there 
has not been discovered any means by which hog cholera can be 
cured, the only safeguard being prevention. All that is necessary 
to prevent the disease is to keep the germs of the disease away 
from the herd. In the vast majority of cases the germ is trans- 
ported mechanically, in the bodies of sick hogs and on the feet of 
men or animals, including birds. It follows, therefore, that the 
chances of an outbreak of hog cholera will be greatly lessened, if 
not completely avoided, if the herd is protected from these sources 
of infection. To do this the herd should be placed on a part of the 
farm that will be least accessible to men or animals from other farms. 



Care and Management of Swine 303 

491. Quarantine lot. — On every farm where hogs are kept 
in considerable numbers, a small quarantine lot should be provided. 
This lot should be located at some distance from the other lots, it 
should be tightly fenced, and at least a part of it should be paved. 
When a new animal arrives, it may be dipped and then placed in 
this quarantine pen for at least seven weeks. Cholera or any 
other diseases will be apparent before this. If all is well, the new- 
comer may then be turned with the herd. Such a pen could be 
used by any of the animals of the herd that may become sick, as 
all ailing hogs should be segregated at once until the nature of the 
disease is determined. Such a lot set apart for this purpose may 
prevent outbreaks of very serious diseases. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many swine are there in the United States? How many in 
your state? In your county? How does your state rank with other 
states in the production of swine? How does your county rank with 
other counties in the state ? Name the ten leading swine states. Which 
state possesses the largest number to the square mile ? To the farm ? 

2. Name the essentials to be considered in herd improvement. Wherein 
does pork production differ from beef production? Why do farmers 
not purchase feeding swine the same as feeding cattle ? 

3. Why should all newly purchased swine be dipped before being brought 
to the farm ? What are the advantages of a self-dipping vat ? 

4. Why is a wallow almost essential for swine in hot weather ? Wherein 
does the swine's skin differ from that of other farm animals ? 

5. Why should each farm where swine are kept be provided with a 
quarantined lot ? Where should this lot be located ? 

6. Name the more common swine diseases. Why is cholera so prev- 
alent among swine? How is the disease distributed? How can it be 
prevented ? 

7. Name the ten leading swine markets in the United States. How 
many swine are handled at each annually? 

8. Why do fat hogs not require so warm housing as sheep ? In 
building a hog-house, how much floor space should be allowed for each 



304 Animal Husbandry 

200-pound hog ? Why is a board floor slightly raised above the ground 
objectionable for hogs ? Name some of the advantages of cement as a 
flooring material in the hog-house. 

9. Give a system of marking pigs when young so that they can be 
identified later when it is desired to have them recorded in a herdbook. 
At what age are swine usually recorded ? How does this compare with 
horses, cattle, and sheep ? 

10. Give advantages of cooperative swine breeding. In which classes 
of farm animals — horses, cattle, sheep, and swine — is cooperative 
breeding likely to prove most satisfactory ? Explain the advantages and 
disadvantages of each. Why are not cooperative societies more common 
in the open country ? 

11. How are lice removed from swine? Describe the use of the rub- 
bing post. 

12. Can the New England States compete with the corn-belt states in 
producing the pork consumed in New England ? Explain. 

13. Can a man sell his own hogs in the stock yards ? Is it to his ad- 
vantage to do so ? Explain. 

14. How much shrinkage in a carload of hogs must a shipper make al- 
lowance for ? Compare with beef cattle and sheep. 



PART FIVE — POULTRY 




Fig. 121. — Parts of the fowl. 



0. Beak. 

1. Comb. 

2. Face. 

3. Wattles. 

4. Ear lobe. 

5. Hackle. 

6. Breast. 

7. Back. 

8. Saddle. 

9. Saddle feathers. 

10. Sickles. 

11. Lesser sickles. 

12. Tail coverts. 



13. 


Main tail feathers. 


14. 


Wing bow. 


15. 


Wing coverts, forming wing- 


16. 


Secondaries, wing bay. 


17. 


Primaries, or flight feathers. 


18. 


Flight coverts. 


19. 


Point of breast-bone. 


20. 


Fluff. 


21. 


Thigh. 


22. 


Knee joint. 


23. 


Shank. 


24. 


Spur. 


25. 


Toes, or claws. 



306 



CHAPTER XX 

BREEDS OF POULTRY 

Fowls have been developed along utility lines similar to other 
classes of farm animals, although they are variously classed in 
the Standard of Perfection. 1 These various classes, however, 
can be divided into types according to their usefulness as follows : 
the egg type, noted for the production of eggs ; the meat type, 
known for the quality and quantity of its meat; the general 
purpose type, so called because of its ability to produce both eggs 
and meat ; and the ornamental breeds, noted more for style and 
beauty than for general utility. 

492. The egg type. — In general appearance this type is neat 
and trim, which gives it an air of activity. It is rather upstand- 
ing, the legs being comparatively long and the body spare, though 
long and deep. In this respect the egg type is similar to the 
dairy type in cattle (Figs. 122, 123). 

493. The meat type. — In general appearance this type is 
much more compactly built and is heavier than the egg type. The 
meat type lacks activity. The neck is short, the body deep and 
full, and the legs short, giving a blocky form, similar to the beef 
type in cattle (Figs. 124, 125). 

494. The general purpose type. — In general appearance, the 
breeds of this type rank intermediate between the egg type and 
the meat type, lacking the trim features and the activity of the 
former, but as a rule, much more neat and clean cut than the latter. 
The body is of good size and plump and full (Figs. 126, 127). 

1 Standard of Perfection by the American Poultry Association. 
307 



308 



Animal Husbandry 



495. Ornamental breeds. — These consist of a large number of 
breeds varying in shape, size, color, and general utility, and propa- 
gated principally for their attractiveness (Fig. 128). 



THE EGG TYPE OF FOWLS 

The more noted breeds of the egg type belong to the Mediter- 
ranean Class, as grouped in the Standard of Perfection, to which 
should be added the Hamburg and Red Cap breeds. 

The Name, Native Home, Number of Varieties, and Weight of Both 
Mature Male and Female for Each of the Breeds of Fowls 
belonging to the egg type 




496. Characteristics of egg breeds. — In a general way each 
of the breeds of fowls belonging to the egg type possesses the 
following characteristics (Figs. 122, 123). 

Size. — While there is much variation in size among the egg- 
producing breeds, yet they are classified as small or medium, al- 
though the heaviest of the mature fowls may weigh more than 
some of the lighter individuals of the larger breeds. Here is a 
case somewhat similar to milk production among cattle. The 
specific purpose for which these fowls are propagated being egg 
production, we do not care to sacrifice this product for increased 
meat production. 



Breeds of Poultry 



309 




Fig. 122. 



The White Leghorn male. 
Egg type. 



Disposition. — Each of the egg-producing breeds is character- 
ized by a rather nervous, active disposition. They are alert, and 
easily frightened, and when disturbed fly with the ease of wild 
birds. The flying habit is easily 
established, but difficult to over- 
come. Since excitement interferes 
with the egg-producing function, 
fowls of this type should be care- 
fully handled. A little thoughtful- 
ness and gentleness on the part of 
the attendant will entirely over- 
come this natural nervousness. 

Maturing qualities. — The breeds 
of this type are among the earliest 
maturing fowls. They develop 
feathers, combs, and wattles very 
early in life, so that they assume the 
appearance of small adults. The feathering period is a very deli- 
cate one in the young fowl's life, because of the extra heavy demands 
made upon the system. The young fowl, therefore, that feathers 
rapidly, can be relied upon to have much constitutional vigor. 

Laying qualities. — As would be 
expected, the breeds of the egg type 
are second to none in egg produc- 
tion ; although good individuals of 
other types may be superior in this 
respect to poor individuals of the 
egg type. 

Meat-production qualities. — Be- 
cause of the comparatively small 
bodies, the breeds of the egg type 
rank inferior in meat production, 
at least so far as quantity is con- 
cerned, although if the fowls are 
properly fed, the quality may be the equal of any. 




123. —The White Leghorn fe- 
male. Egg type. 



310 



Animal Husbandry 



Brooding qualities. — Most of the egg-producing breeds are 
spoken of as " non-sitters," by which is meant a natural disposi- 
tion not to incubate. With these fowls the tendency toward egg 
production has become so great that the hen has comparatively 
little desire to brood and exercise her maternal instincts. The 
brooding is usually done artificially (p. 339). 

Foraging qualities. — The egg-producing breeds are among the 
most active and industrious fowls. They seem to be constantly 
in search of food. Because of their activity and light bodies, 
they may obtain a considerable portion of their own living, if 
provided with sufficient range. Not only will these breeds obtain 
much of their own food if given a large range, but they will thrive 
better and produce a greater number of eggs. 

Sensitiveness to exposure. — All of the more noted egg breeds 
have large combs and wattles, as well as long, naked shanks, which 
make them sensitive to cold. If exposed, these parts are liable 
to be frosted. This calls for more comfortable quarters in cold 
latitudes. 

THE MEAT TYPE OF FOWLS 

The breeds of this type belong to the Asiatic class as grouped in 
the Standard of Perfection. 

The Name, Native Home, Number of Varieties, and Weight of Both 
Mature Male and Female for each of the Breeds of Fowls 
belonging to the meat type 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Number op 
Varieties 


Weight, Pounds 


Male 


Female 


Brahrna .... 

Cochin 

Langshan .... 


Asia 

China 

China 


2 
4 
2 


11-12 
11 

91 


9| 

7* 



Breeds of Poultry 



311 



497. Characteristics of meat breeds. — In general, each of the 
meat breeds possesses the following characteristics (Figs. 124, 125). 

Size. — The fowls of the meat-producing type are the largest 
of any in size, possessing broad, deep, full bodies, and standing on 




Fig. 124. — The Light Brahma male. Meat type. 



short, thick legs. In this type the case is similar to beef pro- 
duction among cattle, hence a heavy, meaty carcass is desired. 

Disposition. — The meat breeds are slow and more or • less 
sluggish, possessing a phlegmatic temperament. Under gentle 
treatment they become very tame, and do not show a dislike to 



312 



Animal Husbandry 



handling, as do the more nervous breeds of the egg type. They 
are easily confined and difficult to frighten. 

Maturing qualities. — As a rule, large animals mature less rapidly 
than small ones. Thus the heavy, meat-producing breeds require 




Fig. 125. — The Light Brahma female. Meat type. 



a much longer period to reach maturity than the egg breeds. 
Since the developing period is the critical one, the chicks are re- 
quired to endure the strain for a considerable length of time. On 
this account they are considered somewhat more delicate than 
many of the lighter breeds. 

Laying qualities. — In this respect the meat-producing breeds 
are quite inferior, although, if properly cared for, some breeds are 



Breeds of Poultry 313 

considered good layers, particularly while young. In this respect 
they are not to be compared with the egg breeds. 

Meat-producing qualities. — This, of course, is the special field 
of the meat breeds. Here they reach their maximum usefulness, 
at least so far as quantity is concerned, although possibly some 
other breeds may excel them in quality, particularly when properly 
fed. 

Brooding qualities. — The meat breeds being of phlegmatic 
temperament have the brooding habit strongly developed, perhaps 
to a greater extent than that of any other class. 

Foraging qualities. — These heavy breeds are not well calcu- 
lated to seek their own living, even though provided with a wide 
range. Because of their slow, and in many cases, awkward move- 
ments, they work at a great disadvantage in foraging for insects 
and the like. Probably because of this they have little desire 
to roam far from home, unless compelled to do so in search of 
food. 

Sensitiveness to exposure. — Since the meat breeds lack the 
extreme development in combs and wattles of the egg breeds, and 
since their shanks are covered with feathers to the toes, they can 
endure a much lower temperature without suffering from cold. 
For best results in fattening, however, they should be provided 
with comfortable, well-ventilated quarters. 

GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS OF FOWLS 

The more noted breeds of the general purpose type belong to 
the American class as grouped in the Standard of Perfection, to 
which should be added the Orpington, Dorking, Houdan, and 
possibly others, depending on the object sought. This type 
ranks intermediate between the egg and meat types, and lacks 
definite bounds, so that there are a few breeds that might be 
placed in any one of the types, according to the fancy of the 
poultryman. 



314 



Animal Husbandry 



The Name, Native Home, Number of Varieties, and Weight of Both 
Mature Male and Female for Each of the Breeds of Fowls 
belonging to the general purpose type 



Name of Breed 


Native Home 


Number of 
Varieties 


Weight, Pounds 


Male 


Female 


Plymouth Rock . . 
Wyandotte . . . 

Java 

Dominique . . . 
Rhode Island Red . 
Orpington . . . 
Dorking .... 
Houdan .... 


United States 
United States 
United States 
United States 
United States 
England 
England 
France 


6 
8 
2 
1 
2 
3 
3 
1 


91 
81 
91 

8 

81 

10 

71-9 

7 


71 
01 
71 


61 

8 
0-7 





498. Characteristics of general purpose breeds. — Ina general 
way the breeds of this type possess the following characteristics 
in common (Figs. 126, 127) : — 

Size. — The fowls of the general purpose type are usually of 
medium size, although the larger may weigh more than the lighter 
of the meat breeds. As a rule, these fowls have blocky, compact 
bodies and comparatively short legs, although not so massive as 
the meat breeds. 

Disposition. — The breeds of this type are fairly gentle. They 
are not easily frightened, and hence are easily confined if given 
sufficient range. Of course, if improperly treated, they may be- 
come wild, and take to their wings, which, after a time, they will 
use with the ease of the lighter breeds. 

Maturing qualities. — The breeds of the general purpose type 
closely resemble the egg breeds in respect to maturity. They are 
hardy, grow quickly, and rapidly pass through the critical stages 
of early life. This is important, as they do not require the close 
attention of the more delicate breeds. 

Laying qualities. — While not equal to the egg-producing 



Breeds of Poultry 



315 



breeds in this respect, yet with proper care, they closely rival the 
egg breeds. Here much depends on the skill and object of the 
poultryman. 

Meat-producing qualities. — As in the laying qualities, much 
depends on the object sought. While the general purpose breeds 





Fig. 126.— The Barred Plymouth 
Rock male. General purpose type. 



Fig. 127.— The Barred Plymouth 
Rock female. General purpose type. 



rank inferior to the meat breeds in weight, yet with proper treat- 
ment they closely rival the meat breeds in other respects, such as 
ease of fattening, quality of meat, and the like. 

Brooding qualities. — While not as persistent sitters as the meat 
breeds, the general purpose fowls make excellent mothers. In 
fact, they are probably among the best brooders, as they are more 
careful than the larger and more clumsy breeds, breaking fewer 



316 



Animal Husbandry 



eggs. Further, they have an abundance of fluffy feathers which 
enables them to do their brooding well. 

Foraging qualities. — The fowls of this type are among the most 
economical foragers, considering their size. If opportunity is af- 
forded, they will roam a considerable range in search of insects and 
green food. In this way they often obtain their entire food supply. 

Sensitiveness to exposure. — The medium-sized combs and wat- 
tles, the compact body, and the thick coat of rather fluffy feathers 
enable this type to endure a much lower temperature than that of 
the egg breeds, although they do not equal the meat breeds in this 
respect. 

ORNAMENTAL BREEDS OF FOWLS 

The more noted breeds of ornamental fowls belong to the Polish, 
Game and Game Bantam, Oriental Game and Bantam, Ornamen- 
tal Bantam, and Miscellaneous 
Classes, which includes the 
Silkies, Sultans, and Frizzles, as 
grouped in the Standard of Per- 
fection. There are many varie- 
ties belonging to some of these 
classes. 

499. Characteristics of orna- 
mental breeds. — There is great 
variation in size, shape, and 
color among these ornamental 
breeds. Undoubtedly some of 
the breeds will lay a number of 
eggs, under favorable circum- 
stances, and, in addition, may 
produce meat that is excellent for food, yet they are all inferior to 
the more specialized breeds. As a rule, the ornamental breeds are 
propagated for their beauty or attractiveness and for their novelty 
(Fig. 128). 




Fig. 128. — The Hamburg, 
mental breed. 



A semi-orna- 



Breeds of Poultry 



317 



TURKEYS, DUCKS, GEESE, AND GUINEA-FOWLS 

Many persons think that the term poultry comprises only 
chickens, whereas it really includes all kinds of domesticated fowls, 
the more useful being turkeys, ducks, geese, and guineas, in addition 
to chickens. 

500. Turkeys. — Of all of our breeds of domestic animals the 
turkey is the only one that is a native of America. Undoubtedly 




Fig. 129. — The turkey. A rover by nature. 



our present domestic turkey descended from what is known as the 
American wild turkey, which existed in a wild state over the 
greater part of North America, from the Carolinas well up into 
Canada, although there are two other species in existence, one 
found in Mexico, the other in Honduras, Central America. While 
the records show that turkeys were grown in England as early as 



318 Animal Husbandry 

1541 and that they were reasonably plentiful in 1573 throughout 
the agricultural districts of England, yet these turkeys were of 
undoubted American origin. The wild turkey still abounds in 
the forest and mountainous regions of some of the Atlantic states, 
Mexico, and Central America. Like other wild game, however, it 
is rapidly disappearing, but owing to its shy nature, it is not likely 
to become extinct for many years. 

The wild turkey is easily tamed, especially if the eggs are taken 
and incubated under a hen. Possibly, because of the ease with 
which the tame, or domesticated ones, were crossed with the wild 
ones, a number of varieties have sprung into existence. The 
Standard of Perfection recognizes six varieties, the bronze, 
Narragansett, buff, slate, white, and black. 

In size the turkey ranks as the largest of fowls, the standard 
weight for adult males ranging from twenty-six pounds in the 
white to thirty-six pounds in the bronze, and the female from six- 
teen in the white to twenty pounds in the bronze. In general 
conformation, the turkey is rather up-standing, but with a broad, 
deep, full, and rather long body. Because of their size turkeys 
are useful for their meat, and considerable attention is given to 
raising them for market (Fig. 129). 

The turkey has a rather nervous disposition, and by nature 
possesses a roving habit. For best results, therefore, free range 
must be provided. They become nervous and restless when con- 
fined to limited quarters. Under such conditions, they will not 
grow as large nor prosper so well as they will if given freedom. 
The turkey hen will lay from thirty to forty eggs in a season. 
The young fowls, when properly fed, furnish meat that is unexcelled 
as food. 

501. Ducks. — These are web-footed, short-legged water-fowls 
raised chiefly for their meat, there being but a limited market for 
the eggs, except for hatching. The Standard of Perfection rec- 
ognizes ten breeds and twelve varieties varying considerably 
in siz >, shape, and color. Among the common breeds, the adult 



Breeds of Poultry 



319 



male weighs from seven to ten pounds and the female from six to 
eight pounds. These fowls have certain advantages over chickens 
that make them favorites with some persons. Ducks have a 
phlegmatic temperament, are difficult to frighten, and are easily 
confined. They are com- 
paratively free from cer- 
tain diseases that often 
trouble chickens. It is 
important to remember 
that the duck lacks the 
distinct crop or craw of 
the hen, and that the food 
passes more directly into 
the digestive organs. The 
food, therefore, does not 
undergo so complete a 
softening as that con- 
sumed by the hen. For 
this reason it is of the ut- 
most importance that the food be consumed in a soft condition. 
In nature, ducks gather a large proportion of their food from 
streams, ponds, and marshy places (Fig. 130). 

502. Geese. — These are also web-footed, short-legged, thick- 
bodied water-fowls raised for their meat and feathers, and to some 
extent for ornamental purposes. The Standard of Perfection rec- 
ognizes six breeds and seven varieties, varying considerably in 
size, shape, and color. These fowls are much larger than ducks, 
adult males weighing from twelve to twenty pounds and females 
from ten to eighteen pounds. In this respect, they rank second 
to the turkey. Geese are not raised so extensively as ducks. 
Possibly this is due to the fact that to thrive they should have 
free range and access to water, such as ponds, streams, and the 
like (Fig. 131). 

503. Guinea-fowls. — These are rather deep, plump, round- 




Fig. 130.— The Pekin duck. 



320 



Animal Husbandry 



bodied fowls that are occasionally met with on farms, although 
they cannot be classed as an economic bird. They are of a semi- 




Fig. 131. — A flock of geese. 



wild nature, refusing to make their nests other than in hiding. 
Often they refuse to brood under any conditions. There are at 
least four varieties of guinea-fowls. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Are there any breeds of pure-bred poultry in your vicinity ? What 
breeds are the most common? 

2. Give the names of a few of the leading poultry exhibitors at your 
state, county, or town fair. What are some of the prices obtained for 
prize-winning stock ? 

3. Why have the Mediterranean countries been so successful in de- 
veloping egg breeds? Asia in developing meat breeds? And America 
in developing general purpose breeds ? 

4. Name four products that America contributed to agriculture. Why 
have not more of our wild animals been domesticated ? 

5. Why are ducks and geese provided with a web-foot ? Why do they 
require a different kind of food from either the chicken or the turkey ? 



CHAPTER XXI 
JUDGING POULTRY 

Judging poultry differs from that of other farm animals in that 
the various classes of fowls have definite standards. These stand- 
ards are followed by poultrymen generally, and before one can 
judge intelligently, he must become familiar with the various 
standards as set forth in the Standard of Perfection published by 
the American Poultry Association. 

504. How to estimate the age of poultry. — The age of fowls 
cannot be judged with exactness. About the best we can do is to 
distinguish between young fowls, say those under one year of age, 
and older ones, say those one year old and upward. 

505. Young fowls. — The young fowl has a clean, smooth 
shank ; soft, short, and straight toe-nails ; and the young male has 
a small, soft spur. The face is smooth and the eyes round and full. 
The skin is elastic and the flesh firm. 

506. Old fowls. — In older fowls, the shanks show roughness, 
dead scales, and less color ; the toe-nails are hard and rough, and 
the old male has a long, hard, bone-like spur, which is often curved. 
The face is wrinkled and puffy*, while the eyes are not so round 
and full as in the younger fowls. The skin is usually loose and the 
flesh flabby. 

METHODS OF JUDGING POULTRY 

There are two distinct methods of judging fowls in common 

practice, the score-card and the comparative method. Poultry 

is the only class of farm animals where the score-card is used in 

placing awards. Both the comparative and the score-card method 

y 321 



322 Animal Husbandry 

depend on an accurate knowledge and a correct interpretation of 
the Standard. In fact, to be a good poultry judge, the following 
qualifications are essential : first, one must have an accurate knowl- 
edge of the correct shape of the various parts of a typical fowl of 
the breed ; also of the various cuts that the Standard prescribes 
for defects, so that he can instantly place a valuation on them. 
Second, he must have exact information concerning the colors and 
shades demanded by the Standard for each section of each variety, 
so that without bringing fowls together for comparison, he may 
give to each section a proper cut for its defect in color. Further, 
he must possess an intimate knowledge of the combinations of 
color that make up the strong points of parti-colored specimens. 

507. Comparative judging. — This is the older method and has 
some advantages over the score-card. In the first place, it is al- 
ways employed at the summer and fall shows where fowls are ex- 
hibited before they recover from their annual molt. It is also 
used where chicks are immature in size, form, and feather. In 
either of these cases the score-card, accurately applied, would 
show such low scores that poultrymen could not be induced to 
exhibit their fowls. In the second place, it is possible to select a 
more uniform lot of prize- winning fowls, particularly where the 
number of entries is large. When the score-card is employed 
in judging large classes, awards are often made to fowls very dis- 
similar in style and type. 

In comparative judging the entries should be so arranged that all 
of the fowls of a class shall be adjacent to each other. First, pass 
along in front of the cages and note the poor exhibits, giving 
special attention to each. Then work over the best fowls until 
sure of the relative rank of each. In addition to a knowledge of 
the standard, this method calls for careful observation and much 
patience. 

508. Score-card judging. — In this method each fowl is care- 
fully scored according to the scale of points for the class. The 
awards are made on the basis of this score. This method is per- 



Judging Poultry 



323 



haps the more convenient as the judge handles each fowl but 
once, recording each character as he notes it. He is then done 
with that fowl. On the other hand, when judging a close class by 
the comparative method, the judge may be obliged to handle 
each fowl many times to arrive at a decision. For convenience, 
the exhibits should be arranged as in comparative judging. This 
is better than to have the judge seated at a central point and the 
fowls brought to him. 

509. Score-card for poultry. — Each class of fowls has its own 
scale of points varying in numerical value, but similar in general 
characters. The following scale of points is for the general pur- 
pose type or the American class : — 

STUDENT'S SCORE-CARD 

Fowls 



Scale of Points 



Symmetry 

Weight 

Condition 

Head — shape 2, color 2 ..... 

Beak — shape 2, color 2 

Comb 

Eyes — shape 2, color 2 

Wattles and ear-lobes — shape 2, color 3 

Neck — shape 3, color 5 

Back — shape 6, color 5 

Breast — shape 6, color 5 ..... 
Body and fluff — shape 5, color 3 . . 

Wings — shape 4, color 5 

Tail — shape 5, color 5 

Legs and toes — shape 3, color 3 . . . 

Total 



Standard 



4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
8 
4 
5 
8 
11 
11 
8 
9 
10 
6 



Points Deficient 



Student's 
Score 



Corrected 



100 



324 



Animal Husbandry 



DETAIL CHARACTERS OF FOWLS 

In judging poultry a detailed examination of the characters is 
of first importance. This is due to the minute shades of difference 

between varieties and 
breeds. Such an in- 
spection calls for a 
thorough knowledge of 
the Standard for each 
class under considera- 
tion. That no char- 
acters be overlooked, 
they should be consid- 
ered in order (Fig. 132) . 

510. Symmetry. — 
This should be noted 
before the fowl is 
touched. Symmetry 
refers to the harmoni- 
ous union of the char- 
acters and to the gen- 
eral style and finish. 
It considers the fowl as 
a whole. The general 
make-up should be 
typical of the variety 
and the breed. 

511. Weight.— 
Where Standard 
weights are required, 

they should be taken and recorded before the judge handles the 
fowl. Cut according to the Standard rules. American varieties 
are criticised for over- weight as well as under- weight. Non- 
weight varieties should be cut for under-size. 




Fig. 132. — Judging poultry. 



Judging Poultry 325 

512. Condition. — This is the place to criticise for lack of care. 
Fowls that lack thrift, that are unclean with soiled plumage, 
that have their combs and wattles frost-bitten, and the like, should 
be severely scored, so as to protect the painstaking and careful 
poultrymen. 

513. Head. — Close attention should be given the length and 
curvature of the skull and beak. The shape and condition of the 
eye are of special importance. Shape and color are considered 
separately. 

514. Comb. — Note the shape and regularity of the comb, 
giving attention to color. Cut according to the Standard for the 
various varieties and breeds. 

515. Wattles and ear-lobes. — The shape and color are so im- 
portant that the score-card considers them separately, giving a 
numerical value to each. The wattles should be of equal length, 
free from wrinkles and fine in texture. The ear-lobes should be 
small to medium for the variety, fine in texture, free from wrinkles, 
and equal in length. 

516. Neck. — The neck varies in length according to the breed 
and class. It should taper gracefully from head to body, with 
neat attachment. Shape and color are considered separately. 

517. Back. — The back differs in shape according to the breed 
and class. In the meat breeds, it is broad and comparatively short, 
while in the egg breeds it is of medium length and comparatively 
narrow. Shape and color are considered separately. 

518. Breast. — The shape of the breast, varies more, according 
to the condition in respect to fatness, than does any other char- 
acter. It also varies according to the breed and class. In the 
meat type it is broad, deep, well-rounded, and full, while in the 
egg type it is prominent and lacks the breadth of the meat type. 
Shape and size are considered separately. 

519. Body and fluff. — In respect to shape, the body varies 
in much the same way as the back and breast. In judging fe- 
males, care must be exercised to notice whether they are pro- 



326 Animal Husbandry 

during eggs. The abdominal section covered by the fluff is likely 
to be abnormally developed while the egg-producing organs are 
active. Shape and color are considered separately. 

520. Wings. — The wings should be of medium size for the breed 
under consideration. They should be well folded and carried close 
to the body. Note unnaturally shaped wings, also broken or miss- 
ing feathers. Here again, shape and color are considered separately. 

521. Tail. — This is one of the beauty points that requires careful 
attention. The position and carriage of the tail varies according to 
the breed and class. In some breeds it is carried upward and well 
forward, almost over the head, while in others it is carried rather low 
and almost straight backward. Note irregular carriage, also broken 
and missing feathers. Shape and color are considered separately. 

522. Legs and toes. — As in the other characters, the legs and 
toes vary in length, shape, and position, according to the breed and 
class. Thus in the egg type the legs are comparatively long and 
slender, while in the meat type they are rather short and thick 
set. In the meat type the thighs, hocks, and shanks are considered 
separately. In most of the breeds, the plumage extends only 
to the hocks, whereas in a few others, it extends to the toes. Shape 
and color are separately considered, and, in scoring, a numerical 
value is given each. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the score-card often used in practical poultry judging? 
Why is it not used in judging other classes of farm animals? 

2. In the score-card for fowls, why is shape and color given a separate 
numerical valuation? 

3. How does the Standard of Perfection promote uniformity ? Would 
it be of advantage to have similar standards for each class of farm animals ? 

4. How does the coat of fowls differ from that of other farm animals ? 
What advantage over other animals does this give fowls? How do 
Silkies differ from other fowls ? 

5. Why should symmetry be noted before the fowls are handled ? Why 
is it of advantage to have the judge pass upon fowls in their cages rather 
than to have them brought to him seated at a central point ? 



CHAPTER XXII 

FEEDING POULTRY 

The general principles of feeding apply to fowls as well as to other 
farm animals. The poultry ration, therefore, should be properly 
balanced, and should contain sufficient nutrients to meet the needs 
of the fowl. It should provide a good variety and possess sufficient 
bulk to enable the digestive secretions to act on it quickly, although 
it should not contain too large an amount of indigestible fiber. 
Further, it should consist of food which the fowls like. 

ESSENTIALS OF FEEDING POULTRY 

There are a few points in which poultry feeding differs essentially 
from that of other farm animals. These are due in part to the 
manner in which the fowl prepares its food for digestion, and to the 
extra heavy demands made upon the system, especially in the 
production of eggs. 

523. Grit and mineral matter. — Grit forms an essential part of 
a poultry ration. It has a double function, namely, to aid in 
grinding or crushing the food in the crop or gizzard, and to fur- 
nish the lime and mineral matter used in egg production. Most 
of the grits on the market contain little or no lime. Cracked 
oyster shells or mortar are the chief source of lime. They also 
meet the need of grinding material, although some grit should be 
fed in addition. 

524. Meat scraps. — For best results, meat in some form is an 
essential part of every poultry ration. This is true of growing 
stock as well as of mature animals, whether being fed for egg or 
meat production. Meat is usually supplied in the form of beef 

327 



328 Animal Husbandry 

scrap, principally because of its high-protein content and easy 
keeping qualities, although skim-milk is probably the most de- 
sirable of all meat foods. Green cut bone is very desirable for 
variety, although it must be fed in small quantities, preferably 
along with other meat food. Meat should form from ten to fifteen 
per cent of the daily ration. 

525. Green food. — For best results green food in some form 
should be fed daily. Its chief value lies in its succulence, as it as- 
sists in digestion and promotes health. In summer the most de- 
sirable green food is clover pasture, while mangels, if fed in limited 
quantities, are perhaps best for winter use. 

526. Preparation of grain. — The grain ration should consist 
of one-half to two-thirds whole grain and one-third to one-half 
ground feed. While fowls seem to prefer whole or cracked grains 
to ground feed, yet the great demands made upon the system ne- 
cessitate supplying the food in the most readily available form, 
especially during heavy egg production. Fowls do not seem capa- 
ble of grinding the whole grain rapidly enough to satisfy their 
needs, except during the season when they are least productive. 

527. Nutritive ratio. — As with other farm animals, the nutritive 
ratio varies with the age and the product sought. Thus the grow- 
ing chick requires a ration with a ratio of approximately 1 : 4.0, 
the egg-producing hen 1 : 4.8, while the fattening fowl requires a 
ration with a ratio of 1 : 7.5. 1 

FEEDING YOUNG CHICKENS 

For a time after hatching, the young chick derives nourishment 
from the yolk of the egg, which is inclosed within its abdomen, 
just before it breaks from the shell. It is believed that too early 
feeding hinders the proper absorption of this yolk. Chicks begin 
to show signs of hunger twenty-four to forty-eight hours after 
hatching, at which time they should receive their first meal. This 

1 From data furnished by Cornell University Poultry Department. 



Feeding Poultry 



329 



first food must be of such character 
that it may be readily digested, 
such as stale bread dipped in milk. 
Ground or finely cracked grain soaked 
in milk may be fed to advantage. 
From the beginning, chicks should be 
encouraged to eat dry, cracked grain 
in addition to the moist feed. This 
food should contain fine grit, charcoal, 
and granulated bone. 

528. Frequency of feeding. — For 
the first few days, the chicks are 
usually fed five times a day. They 
should be required to clean up their 
food, although they should be given 
all they will eat. The number of 
meals is later reduced to four and 
then to three times daily. If kept in 
small yards, the chicks should be fed 
more often and given a smaller quan- 
tity at a feeding than if given a free 
range. 

529. Amount to feed. — The morn- 
ing meal should consist of grain, 
which should be fed under such con- 
ditions that the chicks will be obliged 
to hunt for it, as, for example, on a 
light litter of straw. The amount fed 
should be controlled by the appetites 
of the chicks. If, perchance, they 
should be overfed, no more food 
should be given until they are eager 
for it, and the subsequent feeding 
should be just sufficient to satisfy the 




330 Animal Husbandry 

appetite. Green food should be given twice a day. At night the 
chicks should have all the food they will eat. 

530. Sorting uneven flocks. — Chicks of different size should 
not be fed together, as the strong ones will take advantage of the 
weak ones. Hence, if the flock is uneven, the smaller chicks should 
be separated from the larger ones. Fresh, clean water should be 
constantly before the fowls, and it should be furnished in vessels 
that will not allow the down of the chick to become wet. 

531. Exercise. — In developing young fowls, exercise is of the 
utmost importance, and when possible free range should be pro- 
vided. Unless provision is made for sufficient exercise the young 
fowls will not make satisfactory growth and development. Young 
chicks, however, should not be permitted to run in moist land, 
but should be ranged on a dry southern slope. 

FEEDING FOR EGG PRODUCTION 

In the feeding of fowls for increased egg production, a valuable 
lesson may be learned from the natural habits of the animals. As 
a rule, fowls lay most abundantly in the spring, particularly when 
left to shift for themselves. If given free range at this season of the 
year, they obtain green food in the tender shoots of grass and other 
young plants. They also obtain meat food in the form of insects, 
worms, and the like. Such natural food, in connection with some 
grain, forms a good ration for the egg-producing hen. In feeding 
for increased egg production, therefore, it should be the object to 
prolong spring-like conditions throughout the year. 

532. Feed a variety. — " The fowls should eat about one-half 
as much mash (ground feed) by weight as whole grain. Regulate 
the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light feeding of 
grain in the morning and about all they will consume in the after- 
noon. In the case of heavy-laying fowls, restrict both night and 
morning feeding to induce heavy eating of dry mash, especially in 
the case of hens. This ration should be supplemented with beets, 



Feeding Poultry 



331 




332 Animal Husbandry 

cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other succulent feed, unless 
running on a grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster shells, 
bone, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green food 
should not be fed in frozen condition. All food and litter should 
be strictly sweet, clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. 
Serious losses frequently occur from disease, due to the fowls 
taking into their bodies, through the intestinal tract or lungs, 
the spores of the fungus-causing molds. 

533. Amount to feed. — " Another important point to empha- 
size in feeding is that there should be food available up to the limit 
of a hen's capacity to eat, so that the high-productive hen shall not 
suffer from lack of something to eat. The method of dry feeding 
in a hopper makes it possible for the hen to take food when she 
likes. Formerly, in wet mash feeding, the amount hens could eat 
depended upon the good or bad judgment of the person who fed. 
For the person who will watch his hens and feed each day just what 
whole grain they need to keep the appetite right and the hens 
happy and busy, the dry feed-hopper for ground grain not only 
insures against underfeeding but also saves time. 

534. Condition of fowls. — " The proper physical condition of 
the hen is an important point that needs to be taken into considera- 
tion. We must give a hen all she will eat of the right kinds of 
food, so that she may have surplus energy in the form of fat. The 
experience of years proves this to be true. More people overfeed 
than underfeed their hens. The hen must be fed, not only a ration 
having the correct nutritive ratio, but must be fed the right quan- 
tity, so that she will carry some surplus fat in her body. The 
ovum (yolk of the egg) is sixty-four per cent fat and is practi- 
cally the only fat that is within the egg. Apparently a hen can- 
not function properly unless she has surplus fat in her body to 
put into the ova. 

535. Mineral matter. — " We would emphasize the fact that 
we must feed lime in the form of oyster shells and also in the form 
of bone meal, granulated bone, or green cut bone, so that the fowls 



Feeding Poultry 333 

will have an available supply of mineral nutrients which are es- 
sential in egg production." 1 

FEEDING FOR MEAT PRODUCTION 

Fowls should be fattened for at least ten days to three weeks 
before they are put upon the market. This improves the quality 
of the meat by giving the right proportion of fat and lean, which 
makes it much more tender and juicy when cooked. There are 
two methods of fattening poultry in common practice, the pen 
method and the crate method. In the former method the fowls are 
fed in small yards or pens in flocks of from twenty-five to fifty each, 
while in the latter method the fowls are confined to crates. These 
are approximately six feet long, sixteen inches high, eighteen inches 
to two feet wide, and are usually divided into three equal-sized com- 
partments, each holding from four to six fowls as the case may be. 

536. Feeding the fowls. — Before the fowls begin to fatten they 
should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free them from 
vermin. This should be repeated at least twice during the fattening 
period. The fowls should be graded according to size to prevent 
fighting. During the first few days of feeding, care must be taken 
not to overfeed, as fowls somtimes overeat, and lose their appetite, 
especially at the beginning of the fattening process. The aim should 
be to give very little the first day and gradually increase, until by the 
end of the first week they should be receiving all they will eat three 
times a day. When moist food is given, feed just what the fowls 
will clean up, and remove what is rejected at the end of fifteen min- 
utes. This is essential to keep the feeding utensils sweet and clean. 

537. Kind of food. — There are many good fattening rations, 
but for best results, animal food, such as beef scraps or skim-milk 
is needed, even though the ration be balanced properly with grain. 
As a rule, beef scraps and meat meal are expensive for the farmer, 
but skim-milk gives equally good results and should be easily ob- 
tained on any farm. Some persons prefer to have all grains finely 

1 Bulletin 37. New York State Department of Agriculture. 



334 Animal Husbandry 

ground and mixed with sour milk, while others prefer to feed 
some whole grain in addition. 

538. Broilers. — These are young chicks usually marketed at 
six to twelve weeks of age. They derive their name from the fact 
that they are usually cut in half and broiled. Broilers are dressed 
in three sizes : squab broiler, weighing from three-fourths to one 
pound; small broiler, weighing from one to one and one-half 
pounds ; and large broilers, weighing from one and one-half to 
two pounds. The small broiler is most in demand. 

Broiler raising is regarded as a specialty and a business requiring 
the greatest skill for success. For this reason there are few ex- 
clusive broiler farms in America. Broilers command a very 
high price in the early spring months, and even as late as June, but 
when we consider the cost of rearing early winter chicks, and the 
great risk and losses connected with it, the prices are not so at- 
tractive as at the first glance. 

539. Roasters. — This is a young fowl approximately full 
grown and weighing from eight to twelve pounds. The most 
profitable age to fatten them is from three to four months, as they 
grow and put on flesh at the same time. Roasters should be fat- 
tened as early in the season as possible, as the prices are low in the 
late summer and fall, when most farmers rush their stock to market. 

540. Sample rations for poultry. — The following rations have 
been collected from various sources, and furnish a guide in deter- 
mining the kind and amount of food that should be given poultry 
under various conditions : — 

Ration for Young Chicks — First to Fourth Day 

By Weight By Weight 

Rolled oats 8 parts Wheat (finely cracked) . 3 parts 

Bread crumbs .... 8 parts Corn (finely cracked) . 2 parts 

Sifted beef scrap ... 2 parts Pinhead oat meal . . 1 part 

Bone meal 1 part This dry mixture should be left 

Moisten with sour skim-milk and before the chicks in a shallow tray, 

feed five times a day. along with the moist mash. 



Feeding Poultry 



335 



Ration for Young Chicks — Subsequent Feeding 



By Weight 

. 3 parts 

. 3 parts 

. 3 parts 

. 3 parts 

. 1 part 

Moisten with skim-milk and feed 
two or three times a day. 



Wheat bran 
Corn meal . . 
Wheat middlings 
Sifted beef scrap 
Bone meal . . 



The dry cracked grain mixture 
suggested above should be given at 
least twice a day, scattered in light 
litter as soon as the chicks are able 
to find it, along with the moist 
mash. 



Ration for Egg Production 



Winter By Weight 

Wheat 60 parts 

Corn 60 parts 

Oats 30 parts 

Buckwheat 30 parts 

Summer 

Wheat 60 parts 

Corn 60 parts 

Oats 30 parts 

This whole grain mixture is fed 
morning and afternoon in a straw 
litter. 



Winter and Summer By Weight 

Corn meal 60 parts 

Wheat middlings ... 60 parts 

Wheat bran .... 30 parts 

Alfalfa meal .... 10 parts 

Oil meal 10 parts 

Beef scrap 50 parts 

Salt 1 part 

This ground feed is fed dry in a 
hopper kept open during the after- 
noon only. Fed along with the 
whole grain mixture. 



Two Rations for Meat Production 



By Weight 

Corn meal 50 parts 

Ground oats (hulls re- 
moved) 10 parts 

Animal meal .... 10 parts 
Moistened with sour skim-milk 

and fed three times a day. 



By Weight 
Barley meal . . . . 20 parts 

Middlings 20 parts 

Buckwheat 20 parts 

Corn meal 10 parts 

Moistened with sour skim-milk 
and fed three times a day. 



Grit, charcoal, and fine cracked bone should be fed in separate hoppers 
with each of the above rations. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Why is the feeding of poultry essentially different from that of other 
farm animals? How do fowls masticate their food? How do chickens 
and turkeys differ from ducks and geese in this respect ? 



336 Animal Husbandry 

2. Which type of young chicks are the most difficult to feed ? Why ? 
Why does the chick not require food for some time after hatching ? 

3. Compare the product yielded by an egg-laying hen with that of a 
dairy cow. Considering body weight, which excels, the hen or the cow? 
How does the product of an egg-laying hen differ from that of the dairy 
cow? 

4. What are the functions of the mineral matter in the food of an egg- 
laying hen ? Of the protein ? Of the fat ? 

5. Wherein does feeding poultry for meat production differ from feeding 
other meat-producing animals? What class of trade takes most of the 
broilers on the market? Compare the price of fat fowls, broilers, and 
roasters on the pound basis. Why this difference ? 



CHAPTER XXIII 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY 

The hen is probably even more susceptible to climatic changes, 
to fright, to unfavorable changes in diet and the like, than is the 
dairy cow. If the hen is functioning properly, laying an egg every 
day or every other day continuously, and if something should go 
wrong in her environmental conditions, such as excessive heat or 
cold, or if she should become frightened or suffer from any cause 
whatsoever, or if her food supply should be insufficient to meet 
her needs, she does not simply stop laying and wait for such con- 
ditions to disappear, but under such unfavorable conditions the 
ova may be reabsorbed into the body. Thus the hen that would 
have gone on laying, while eggs command a good price, not only 
stops laying, but draws back into her body and uses for mainte- 
nance the stored-up nutrients in the ova, which otherwise might 
have become valuable eggs. We must realize that if we are to 
secure high performance in hens, it must be as a result of the 
application of the same skill in feeding and breeding, as in the case 
of the wonderful performance of great dairy cows or trotting 
horses. 1 

541. Improvement of fowls. — In selecting eggs for hatching 
use only those from healthy stock. Weak parents produce weak 
eggs. Weak eggs develop into weak chicks. There must be 
health, vigor, and vitality at the start. There is great difference 
in the natural vitality of the different flocks of fowls of the same 
breed and variety, due to difference in the individuals. Thus a 
few of the thriftiest and best-laying hens should be placed by 
themselves in order that their eggs alone may be used for hatching. 

1 Bulletin 37. New York State Department of Agriculture. 
z 337 



338 



Animal Husbandry 



In selecting such fowls, probably the best time to make the choice 
is at the molting period, as thrifty fowls molt much more rapidly 
than those having weak constitutions. In making this selection, 
deep, long-bodied, wedge-shaped fowls are preferred for egg pro- 
duction. Two-year-old hens should be used, as they are more 
mature than yearlings and lay more perfectly developed eggs. 
With the breeding flock, thus selected, allow one male for each 
fifteen to twenty-five hens. For best results the males should 
be changed two or three times a week (Fig. 135). 

In selecting eggs for hatching, choose only those that are typical 
of the variety, perfect in shape, normal in size, uniform in color, 



^jMF ^W ▼ ■ - 



Fig. 135. — A breeding flock of White Leghorns. 

and firm of shell. Any departure from this condition indicates 
faulty nutrition or secretion in the development of the egg, which 
would naturally result in weakness of the chick. 

542. Incubation. — There are two methods of hatching eggs 
in common use, natural incubation and artificial incubation. 
The former method is used in small flocks and by farmers generally, 
while the latter is used in large flocks and on farms where poultry 
raising is a specialty. 

543. Natural incubation. — In most respects the hen is superior 
to the artificial incubator. There is much difference between the 
breeds as well as among individuals of the same breed in respect 
to their usefulness for incubation purposes. All things considered, 
the general purpose breeds provide the best sitting hens. The 



Care and Management of Poultry 339 

meat breeds are persistent sitters, but clumsy, and the egg breeds 
too small, usually light, and untrustworthy. In selection of the 
individuals for brooding, choose hens that are least excitable when 
approached. A nervous hen is likely to break some of the eggs 
in the nest or to step on the little chicks when first hatched. 

Successful incubation depends, not only on the hen's ability to 
hatch fertile eggs, but also on the nesting place and the environ- 
ment. The hen that steals her nest and sits undisturbed usually 
brings off a good brood of chicks. In setting a hen, therefore, 
the object should be to make the conditions as nearly natural as 
possible. The brooding nest should be placed where laying hens 
cannot have access to it. A dust bath, fresh water, and the proper 
kind of food should be convenient. 

The hen should be set on " china eggs " until she becomes 
accustomed to her new surroundings. Before she is placed on 
the nest, however, she should be thoroughly dusted with lice powder. 
When the hen becomes familiar with her nest, which will usually 
be about the second night, the real eggs may be placed under her. 
It requires approximately twenty-one days for the eggs to incubate. 

Before the chicks are hatched, provision should be made for 
the hen and her brood. When the chicks are twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours old, they may be removed from the nest and placed 
in the coops provided for them. 

544. Artificial incubation. — There are several types of ma- 
chines that hatch eggs successfully. These incubators may be 
divided into two classes : those operated by hot air and those 
using hot water. The former system is used the more extensively 
in heating incubators ranging in capacity from sixty to six hundred 
eggs, while the latter is used more for heating large machines, say 
those holding one thousand eggs or more. The most successful 
methods of supplying heat to the egg chamber are diffusion and 
radiation. 

The large incubator, one holding two hundred to six hundred 
eggs, is usually much more economical and efficient than is the 



340 Animal Husbandry 

one-hundred-egg machine. The expense for oil and labor in the 
operation of a large machine is comparatively much less than for 
a small one, and the results obtained from the former are surpris- 
ing y better, as the temperature, moisture, and other vital factors 
are more easily controlled. 

545. Brooders. — When chicks are hatched artificially a brooder 
must be provided to take care of the little ones as they leave the 
incubator. There are many types of brooders and they may be 
divided into two classes, on the same principle as incubators, 
according to the method of heating. A good brooder should be 
constructed of first-class material, put together in such a way as 
to supply a high temperature, pure air, and most important of 
all, opportunity for the chicks to select their own temperature. 

The first need of a young chick is heat. It must be able to find 
a temperature of not less than 100 degrees Farenheit at all times, 
but to remain in such a high temperature would prove fatal. 
Every brooder, therefore, should provide an opportunity for the 
chicks to choose the temperature most agreeable to them. This 
will vary from 90 to 100 degrees. This temperature should be 
maintained during the first three or four weeks. It is better to 
^rr in having the heat higher than necessary, provided the chicks 
have an opportunity to get away from it, than it is to have too 
little heat. In the latter case, there is no remedy except huddling, 
which always results in weakness and great mortality. 

POULTRY HOUSES 

The poultry house should be comfortable, convenient, well 
ventilated, and sanitary, as well as of economical construction. In 
order to fulfill these requirements, the house must be constructed 
to meet the conditions of the climate. Failure in poultry keeping 
is often directly traceable to the conditions under which fowls 
are housed. Many of the most troublesome diseases are due pri- 
marily to poor location and improperly constructed houses. 



Care and Management of Poultry 341 

546. Location of house. — The poultry house should be located 
in a spot dry and well drained. If the ground is not naturally 
dry, it should be made so by underdrainage. Damp ground will 
produce a damp, cold, unhealthy house. Low places should also 
be avoided as they may be several degrees colder than higher 
places only a few rods distant. If possible, the poultry house 
should be placed on ground that slopes to the south. If this can- 
not be done, face the house toward the south so as to get the sun's 
rays throughout the day to keep the house bright and cheerful 
inside. This is especially desirable during the winter, when the 
poultry house is most needed. 

547. Size. — As a rule the size of a poultry house will be gov- 
erned by the number of fowls in the flock. In estimating size, 
four to five square feet of floor space per hen is generally thought 
to be sufficient. For a given floor space, the nearer square a house 
is the less it will cost for material and labor. While there are 
many types of poultry houses in common use, in a general way they 
can be grouped into two classes, the colony house and the long 
House. 

548. Colony house. — ■ This consists of a small house or cot 
adapted to a small flock or colony. In the case of large flocks, 
the fowls are divided into many colonies. Colony houses are of 
two types, the portable and the non-portable. The former has 
many advantages over the latter, especially for growing stock. 
The usual method of construction is to place the small house on 
runners and then have a team draw it from place to place as 
wished. This type of house makes possible the utilization of 
grain after harvest, which would otherwise be wasted, as the 
houses may be moved to the fields. This provides free range, 
and as the fowls are kept on clean ground, they get more insects 
than would be possible around the farm buildings (Fig. 134). 

549. Long house. — This type of poultry house has the ad- 
vantage of being comparatively less expensive to build. It re- 
quires less labor to care for the fowls, as the attendant can go 



342 



Animal Husbandry 




Care and Management of Poultry 343 

through the long house much more quickly than he can go from 
one detached house to another, as he must where several colony 
houses are used. On the other hand, the long house makes it 
necessary to keep the land more densely stocked and there is 
much less natural food such as insects, green grass, and the like. 
Large numbers of fowls kept close together increase the tendency 
to disease. The grounds and buildings need more careful attention 
to keep them sanitary, and unless the long house is provided 




Fig. 137. — Poultry house with scratching-shed. 

with partitions, the fowls are likely to do more or less crowding 
(Fig. 136). 

550. Scratching-shed. — This shed was devised to permit the 
fowls to enjoy fresh air and exercise the year around. The open 
scratching-shed consists of an ordinary shed walled in on three 
sides but open to the south. It is attached to the main poultry 
house so that the fowls can pass to the shed at will. 

Exercise is necessary to insure health. Fowls like freedom. 
The scratching-shed provides for both. Being in the cooler air 
during the daytime, seems to make the fowls less sensitive to the 
cold at night. Fowls are generally found to be more healthy and 



344 



Animal Husbandry 



to lay more eggs in a year when they have lived in the fresh air 
of a scratching-shed (Fig. 137). 

551. Windows. — These are a very essential part of the poultry 
house. They should be arranged high and low rather than wide, 




Fig. 138. — Interior fixtures, showing perches, droppings-platform and brooding 

coop. 



so as to permit the sun to sweep the entire floor space, as it passes 
from east to west, drying the floor, killing disease germs, warming 
the building, and giving good cheer. In addition to glass, cloth 
windows should also be provided so as to facilitate ventilation. 
Provide one square foot of glass and one of curtain surface for 
each sixteen square feet of floor space. 



Care and Management of Poultry 345 

552. Floors. — The floor of the poultry house should be so 
constructed as to insure dryness, warmth, ease of cleaning, and 
durability, at reasonable cost. A properly constructed cement 
floor accomplishes all the requirements better than any other, 
although sand or dirt is much cheaper and sometimes advisable. 
Hens like a dirt floor if it is dry and kept clean. The dirt floor 
should be well above the outside surface so that the water drains 
away, leaving the floor dry and comfortable for the fowls. 

553. Interior fixtures. — Every poultry house should be pro- 
vided with perches, droppings-platform, nests, brooding coop, dust 
bath, water pan, grit- and feed-hoppers, and a grain supply can. 
The feed- and grit-hoppers should be rat proof, self-feeding, and 
non-wasting. All interior fixture should be simple, convenient, 
and portable, so as to be readily removable for cleaning and dis- 
infecting (Fig. 138). 

554. Labor-saving appliances. — Success in raising poultry 
depends largely on the attention given to details. Since the needs 
of fowls call for such painstaking effort, the efficiency of the attend- 
ant will depend largely on the use of labor-saving devices. 

The economy in labor of feeding fowls in the long house is greatly 
increased by the use of an overhead car system, passing from one 
end of the house to the other. Where the feed room is not in 
connection with the house, the track can be extended over the 
intervening space, and the heavy work of carrying feed or other 
necessities lessened. 

Where many fowls are kept in the flock, capacious feed-hoppers 
should be provided. These should be constructed for both indoor 
and outdoor use. These have the advantage of holding a large 
supply of the whole and ground grains, meat scrap, shell, and grit ; 
sufficient to supply the fowls with food for several days. 

In catching fowls much time is saved and fright and injury are 
avoided by the use of a catching-hook. This is made by at- 
taching a No. 10 steel wire to the end of a broom handle, and then 
by bending a hook in the other end of the wire of sufficient size to 



346 Animal H.usbandry 

catch the fowl about the shank. This hook should have a rather 
wide aperture so as to permit the shank to be easily caught, but 
the lower part of the hook should be sufficiently restricted to 
prevent the shank from being easily withdrawn. The successful 
poultryman will be constantly in search of appliances that will 
reduce his labor to a minimum (Fig. 139). 




Fig. 139. — Outdoor feed hopper. A place for each kind of food. 

555. Yards, parks, and ranges. — Among poultry, as well as 
other farm animals, exercise is essential to thrift and constitutional 
vigor. On farms where fowls are given free range, this is abun- 
dantly provided for and need receive little or no attention. On 
the other hand, where it is necessary to restrict the range of the 
fowls, the matter of exercise becomes a serious question, partic- 
ularly among young fowls and among the egg-producing breeds. 

While there is an utter lack of agreement among poultrymen 
as to the proper amount of park-space to provide, yet it would 
seem that sixteen square rods would provide ample yardage for a 
flock of fifty hens. While such a yard could be more cheaply 



Care and Management of Poultry 347 

fenced if square, yet it could be more economically cultivated if 
oblong, say two rods wide and eight rods long. Whatever may be 
the form or size of the park, it should be remembered that the first 
requisite is cleanliness. This can be facilitated by frequent cul- 
tivation. Perhaps the ideal condition is to have one part of the 
park in permanent grass, and another part under cultivation. 
Where convenient, plum and apple orchards provide excellent yard 
facilities for poultry. This has one particular advantage in that it 
offers an abundance of shade which in warm latitudes is essential. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many domestic fowls are there in the United States? How 
many in your state ? In your county ? How does your state rank with 
other states in the production of poultry ? How does your county rank 
with other counties in the state ? Name the ten leading poultry states. 
Which possesses the largest number to the square mile ? To the farm ? 

2. In selecting breeding fowls to improve the quality of the stock, what 
are the essential factors to be considered ? 

3. Which type of fowls provides the best sitting hens? Why? Why 
are artificial incubators and brooders inferior to hens in hatching and brood- 
ing chickens ? Why are the incubators and brooders used ? 

4. Which type of poultry house is the most desirable on the average 
farm? Why? 

5. Why should fowls that are closely confined be provided with a 
scratching-shed ? Why is free range beneficial to poultry ? Which types 
require the largest area ? Which types are the most difficult to confine ? 
Why ? Are turkeys, ducks, and geese difficult to confine ? 

6. What diseases of poultry are most common in the region ? What 
is the principal cause of such ailments ? What is done to control them ? 

7. In nature, how many eggs does the hen lay in a season ? In your 
region, how many eggs do the best hens lay in a season? The poor 
hens? What is the highest egg yield on record? Why is there such 
variation in the egg laying capacity of hens ? 

8. How are eggs sometimes tested by egg dealers? How long will 
eggs remain fresh in summer ? In winter ? How long will eggs keep in 



348 Animal Husbandry 

cold storage ? In water-glass ? Are such eggs as good as fresh ones ? 
How are fresh eggs distinguished from those thus preserved ? 

9. What price do eggs bring in your locality? How many eggs 
would have to be sold to pay for the food given the fowls in a year ? 
Compare with the food consumed and the milk yield of the dairy cow ? 
Which is the more profitable ? 

10. What price per pound live weight does fat poultry bring in your 
vicinity ? How much must each fowl gain per pound of food consumed 
to pay for the fattening ? First, compare with egg production. Which 
is the more profitable, egg production or meat production? Second, 
compare with the beef animal. For the food consumed, which is the 
more profitable, beef production or the production of fat poultry ? Name 
advantages fat poultry production has over beef production. Third, com- 
pare with mutton production. For food consumed, which is the more 
profitable, fattening sheep or fattening poultry? Name advantages 
poultry have over sheep. Fourth, compare with fattening swine. For 
food consumed, which is the more profitable, fattening swine or poultry ? 
And fifth, compare the fattening of chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. 
Which is the most profitable? Discuss advantages and disadvantages 
of each class of poultry. 



APPENDIX 

PART I 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 1 

1. Habits of Domestic Animals 

Object. To learn the habits of animals. 

Materials. Horse, cow, or sheep ; watch. 

Directions. Observe the horse as he starts to walk. With 
which foot does he begin, right, left, front, or hind foot? Compare 
with cow or sheep. While walking does the horse place his hind foot 
in front, behind, or in the track made by the front foot? When 
at the trot? When at the gallop? Compare with cow or sheep. 

How are the legs placed when a horse lies down ? How does the 
horse get up, front or hind quarters first ? Compare with cow or 
sheep. 

Take the watch in hand and count the number of respirations 
per minute, first of the horse, then of the cow or sheep. How do 
they compare? 

Examine the mouth of a horse, and note the number of front 
teeth in both upper and lower jaws. Does the mare differ from 
the horse ? Compare with the front teeth of a cow or sheep. 
Notice if they bite off the grass in the same manner. Have the 
teeth any influence on the manner of eating ? Which animal eats 
grass off closer to the ground, and why? Which eats towards the 
wind, and which in the same direction the wind is blowing? Has 
the arrangement of the teeth and method of cropping the grass 
anything to do with this ? 

1 Made up from New York State Syllabus with additions. 
349 



350 Animal Husbandry 

2. Age of Farm Animals 

Object. To tell the age of animals by the teeth. 

Material. A horse, cow, or sheep. 

Directions. The age of the horse is estimated by the order in 
which the milk teeth are replaced by the permanent ones, and sub- 
sequent changes that take place in them (see pp. 34, 130, 223). 

3. Measuring Horses 

Object. To determine the proportion of the horse. 

Materials. Two horses. Measure prepared as follows : a 
piece of board 18 inches long and 2 inches wide is nailed at right 
angles to a similar piece 4 feet long. Mark off the long piece in 
1 inch lengths, beginning at the inside. Strap an ordinary car- 
penter's square so that it moves freely on the stick. 

Directions. Take the measurements suggested on page 44 of 
two or more horses, if possible of different types. 

4. Scoring the Horse 

Object. To compare light and heavy types of horses. 

Materials. A heavy draft horse, a driving horse ; a score card. 

Directions. Carefully go over the animals, both heavy and light, 
and compare each point mentioned on the card. Compare the 
light horse with a greyhound and the heavy one with a bull dog. 
There are so many points to be considered in judging any animal 
that one who has not had any experience will omit some if he does 
not have a list of them, page 42. 

5. Weighing the Horse 

Object. To determine the relative weight on front and hind 
limbs of the horse. 

Materials. A horse ; stationary scales. 

Directions. Weigh the horse. Stand the horse with his front 
feet on the scales, his hind feet on the ground, weigh his fore- 



Laboratory Exercises 



351 



quarters. Stand with hind feet on the scales and the front on 
ground, weigh his hindquarters. What percentage of total weight 
are each of these ? If possible, stand the animal so that his hind 
feet will be lower, and weigh the forequarters in this position. 
Lower the front feet and weigh the hindquarters. Does this change 
the percentage? Has this any bearing on an animal traveling 
uphill? 

6. Soundness 

Object. To learn to tell an unsound horse. 
Materials. An unsound horse. 

Directions. Carefully examine the animal and locate as many 
undesirable points as possible (see p. 38). 




Fig. 140. — Parts of harness : 1, bridle having the following pieces : a, bit ; b, nose 
band ; c, chin band ; d, cheek straps ; e, blinds ; /, winker braces ; g, brow band ; 
h, crown band; i, gag swivel; j, side check; k, throat latch; 2, lines; 3, collar; 
4, hames; 5, hame tugs; 6, traces; 7, martingale; 8, saddle; 9, girth; 10, shaft 
tug; 11, back strap ; 12, crupper; 13, hip strap; 14, breeching ; 15, holdback strap. 



352 



Animal Husbandry 
7. Harness and Harnessing 



Object. To learn the various parts of harness. 

Materials. A set of harness. 

Directions. Unbuckle and take the harness all apart. Note 
how each part is attached and where it comes from. Put together 
and see if you can get each part back in its proper place (Fig. 140). 



8. Splicing a Rope 

Object. To splice a rope. 

Materials. A piece of five-eighths inch rope, and a marline spike 
which can be made from a block of hardwood. 

Directions. " Untwist the strands of the rope end six to fifteen 
inches or more, depending on the size of the rope. Select as No. 1 
the strand that is on the top of the rope and in the middle between 




Fig. 141. — Side splice, first stage. Fig. 142. —Side splice, second stage. 

the other two strands. Raise a strand on the top of the solid rope 
and pass No. 1 under it diagonally to the right, as in Fig. 141. 
Pull it up securely. Turn the two ropes over to the position shown 
in Fig. 142. Raise the next strand on this side of the one first 



Laboratory Exercises 



353 



raised and tuck No. 2 under it away from the body as in Fig. 142. 
When the marline spike is inserted for this tuck, it comes out where 




Fig. 143. — Side splice, third stage 



ice, fourth stage. 



strand No. 1 went in, as shown in Fig. 141. Turn the ropes back 
to their original position (Fig. 143). 

" Strand No. 3 is now to be tucked. This strand is inserted at the 
place where No. 1 comes through, as shown in Fig. 143 ; it comes 
out where No. 2 starts in, as indicated in Fig. 142, where the spike 
w 




Fig. 145. — Side splice, fifth stage. Fig. 146 — Side splice completed. 

2a 



354 



Animal Husbandry 



is shown inserted for tucking No. 3. Pull the splice up firmly and 
then proceed to splice the ends into the solid rope, as shown in 
Figs. 144 to 146. Pound the splice and roll it under the foot." * 



9. Rope Halter 

Object. To learn to make a rope halter. 

Materials. A rope of the size and length called for in the table, 
p. 356, and a marline spike. 

Directions. Measure from one end to A (Fig. 147, 1) the distance 
given in the table, and with a lead pencil mark the point. From 
A measure back toward the end the required distance to B and 
mark the rope. Bend the rope at A to form a bight, and lay it on 
the knees with the bend toward the right and the short rope away 
from the body (see Fig. 147, 1). Raise the top strand of the rope 
at B and pass the long end through under it away from the body, 
using the whole rope, as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 147, 1, and 
pull the rope through until A is at the end of the loop as shown in 





L0115 End 



Fig. 147. — Rope halter. Forming the eye. 

Fig. 147, 2. Raise a strand on the top of the long end and pass 
the short end through under it from left to right, as indicated by 
the arrow in Fig. 147, 2, and pull up tightly as shown in Fig. 147, 3. 
From B measure along the short end the distance given in the table 
to C, and from B measure along the long end to D (Fig. 148, 1). 
1 Cornell Reading-Course Leaflet, Jan. 15, 1912.— H. W. Riley. 



Laboratory Exercises 



355 




and D 




Fig. 148. — Rope halter. Loose guard loop type. 

If the halter is to be of the guard loop type, as shown in Figs. 
148, 2, and 149, proceed as follows : form the halter over the knee, 
with the eye to the left, the short end over the knee for the head 
piece, the long end in front for the nose piece. 
At the mark C on the short end raise the out- 
side strand and pass the long end through 
from front to back up to the mark D, as in 
Fig. 148, 1. Just back of this crossing raise 
the outside strand of the long end and pass 
the short end through from below, as indi- 
cated by the arrow in Fig. 148, 1, and pull 
up tightly as in Fig. 147, 3. 

Pass the long end through the eye and 
knot the short end, as in Fig. 148, 2, if the 
halter is to be of the loose guard loop type. 
If a standard guard loop halter is desired, 
whip the short end to the long one, .as in 
Fig. 149. 

To make a spliced halter, untwist the 




^SSSSSSSSSfifc 



Fig. 149. — Rope halter. 
Standard guard loop type. 



356 



Animal Husbandry 



strands of the short end down to the mark C. Form the halter over 
the knee, as described above, and as shown in Fig. 150, 1. Raise 








Fig. 150. — Rope halter. Spliced halter. 

the outside strand of the long end at D, and pass downward under 
it the middle outside strand of the short end, pulling it down until 

Approximate Dimensions for Rope Halters 







Rope to 


BE USED 


Measurements in Inches 






Di- 




Total length for 


End to A 








Length 

REMAIN- 












ING 


TO BE USED FOR 


am- 




Stand- 




Stand- 




A 


R 


B 


FOR 




eter 


Kind 


ard 




ard 




to 


to 


to 


TIE 




(In- 
ches) 




guard 

or 

spliced 

type 


guard 
type 


guard 

or 

spliced 

type 


guard 
type 


B 


C 


D 


ROPE 

(Feet) 






Ft. Ins. 


Ft. Ins. 














Sheep and small 






















calves . . 


l 

4 


Cotton 


7 3 


7 10 


26 


32 


1* 


18 


11 


4 


Small cows . 


5 

8 


Manila 


11 2 


12 


46 


56 


3 


34 


12 


6 


Average cows . 


5 

8 


Manila 


11 6 


12 4 


48 


58 


3 


36 


14 


6 


Horses, large 






















cows and bulls 


3 
4 


Manila 


12 


13 


53 


64 


31 


39 


15 


6 



Laboratory Exercises 



357 



mark C is at the crossing, as shown in Fig. 150, 1. The strands 
should now be arranged exactly as shown in Fig. 141. Complete 
the splice as directed for the side splice and then pass the long end 




Fig. 151. — Whipping the end of a rope. 

through the eye, as in Fig. 150, 2. Finish the end by whipping 
(Fig. 151). 1 

10. Plan of Horse Barn 

Object. To learn the general arrangement and space required 
in a horse barn. 

Materials. Drawing material. 

Directions. Show ground plan, outside dimensions of barn, 
also dimensions and arrangement of stalls, feed room, harness room, 
and the like. Figure the cubic space for each animal. 



11. Mixing Feed 

Object. To study the physical condition of mixed feeds. 

Materials. About 10 pounds of each of the following grains : 
corn, wheat, oats, wheat middlings, corn meal, wheat bran, oil 
meal, alfalfa meal, and meat scrap ; magnifying glass ; scales ; 
pails ; shovel. 

1 Cornell Reading-Course Leaflet, Jan. 15, 1912. — H. W. Riley. 



358 Animal Husbandry 

Directions. Weigh out the feeds in the formulas given below, 
mix them thoroughly, and observe carefully the following points : 
(1) bulk ; (2) coarseness ; (3) fiber content ; (4) if ground feed, 
mix with water and note crumbliness or stickiness, and (5) palata- 
bility. 

What does a quart of each food weigh ? 

A report of these observations on each sample should be made 
at the end of the practicum. 







Samples 


(1) 


5 lb. cracked corn 


(2) 


3 lb. cracked corn 




5 lb. wheat 




3 lb. wheat 




2 lb. oats 




6 lb. oats 




12 




12 


(3) 


1 lb. wheat middlings 


(4) 


2 lb. corn meal 




1 lb. corn meal 




2 lb. wheat bran 




4 lb. wheat bran 




2 lb. oil meal 




1 lb. oil meal 




2 lb. alfalfa meal 




4 lb. alfalfa meal 




2 lb. meat scrap 




1 lb. meat scrap 




_2 lb. wheat middlings 




12 




12 


(5) 


4 lb. wheat middlings 




3 lb. oil meal 




2 lb. corn meal 




1 lb. alfalfa meal 




1 lb. wheat bran 




1 lb. meat scrap 



12. Hays 

Object. To become familiar with the various hays used in 
feeding. 

Materials. Few stalks of timothy, clover, alfalfa, and meadow 
hay, and a stalk of corn. 

Directions. Examine each separately and closely. Note the 
leaves of each, the way the stalks branch, the stiffness of the stalk, 
and the like. Which leaves are the more easily broken or crushed, 
the timothy or the clover ? Has this anything to do with the dust 
in the hay? May this not affect its quality? 



Laboratory Exercises 



359 



13. Nutritive Ratio 

Object. To learn to balance rations. 

Materials. None. 

Directions. By " nutritive ratio " is meant the ratio which 
exists between the amount of digestible protein in a given feeding 
stuff, and the amount of digestible carbohydrates and ether extract 
it contains. It is computed as follows : the amount of digestible 
fat or ether extract is multiplied by 2 J ; the product added to the 
digestible carbohydrates, and the sum divided by the digestible 
protein. Calculate the nutritive ratio of the following foods : corn, 
oats, timothy, page 65. See Table 6, page 388, for composition. 

Calculate the ratio of the following ration : — 



Amount of Feed in 
Pounds 


Dry Matter 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


20 timothy hay . . 

4 oats 

4 corn 



















14. Forming a Ration 

Object. To learn to form a ration from given feeds. 

Materials. None. 

Directions. Form a ration, using any of the foods given below. 
It should contain 24 pounds of dry matter with a nutritive ratio of 
1.6. Approximately one-third of the dry matter should be grain, 
page 66. 

Choosing foods for a ration 

A food is purchased for the digestible material in it. The water 
and the indigestible material are like the " filler" in a fertilizer. 
Add the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the 



360 



Animal Husbandry 



digestible fat multiplied by 2\ in a food and the result will be a 
measure of the digestible material in that food. This sum is called 
the total nutriment of the food. 

Divide the price per ton, which may be obtained from the local 
feed dealer, by the pounds of total nutriment in one ton. The re- 
sult is the cost of one pound of total nutriment. The pounds of 
total nutriment in one ton of the common foods are found in column 
two of the table below. Put the price per ton of the foods available 
in column three and compute the cost of ons pound of total nutri- 
ment in each. Choose for the ration, from the foods desirable from 
other standpoints, those foods which yield total nutriment the 
cheapest. 

Common Foods Grouped according to the Protein Content 



Food 



Low Protein Group 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Corn and cob meal 

Hominy chop 

Dried beet pulp 

Medium Protein Group 

Wheat bran 

Mixed wheat feed 

Standard wheat middlings 
Flour wheat middlings . . . 

Cotton seed feed 

Buckwheat feed (shuck in) 

Pea meal 

Cull Beans 



Total 
Nutriment in 
1 Ton. Lbs. 



1686 

1390 
1594 
1632 
1546 
1234 
1418 
1680 
1380 



1190 
1376 
1376 
1594 
1018 
1274 
1402 
1518 



Price per Ton 



Cost of 1 Lb. 

of Total 

Nutriment 



Laboratory Exercises 



361 



Food 



High Protein Group 

Malt Sprouts 

Linseed oil meal 

Cottonseed meal 

Gluten feed 

Breever's dried grains 

Distiller's dried grains (corn) 
Buckwheat middlings 

Roughage 

Timothy hay 

Red clover hay : 

Mixed hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Corn silage 

Corn fodder (ears on) 

Corn stalks (dry) 

Mangels 

Turnips 



Total 

Nutriment in 
1 Ton. Lbs. 



1390 
1554 
1612 
1612 
1314 
1772 
1478 



962 
980 
982 
1098 
344 
796 
684 
140 
192 



Price per Ton 



Cost of 1 Lb. 
of Total 

Nutriment 



15. Forming a Ration for a Horse 

Object. To learn to form a ration for a horse with given foods 
at stated prices. 

Materials. None. 

Directions. Form a ration for a 1000-pound work horse, using 
any of the foods in Exercise 14. The ration should contain 22 
pounds of dry matter with a ratio of 1 : 7. Approximately one-half 
of the dry matter should be grain, and the bulk of the ration should 
not exceed 30 pounds. What is the cost of the ration at prices 
given ? * 

16. Measuring Grain 

Object. To determine the number of bushels of grain in a bin. 
Materials. A half-bushel measure ; a half bushel of the grain 
to be measured ; a sack ; a tape or rule ; scales. 



362 Animal Husbandry 

Directions. Measure the length, width, and depth of the bin. 
Determine the number of cubic feet in the bin. Fill the half -bushel 
measure with grain from the bin and draw a straight edge over, 
leaving the grain even with the top. This is called " struck 
measure." Empty two of these measures into a sack and weigh, 
allowing for weight of the sack. There are 2150.42 cubic inches 
in a bushel. We now have three factors of a ratio to find the fourth. 
The cubic contents of a bushel, the weight of a bushel, and the cubic 
contents of the bin, to find the weight of grain in the bin. Divide 
the weight of grain thus obtained by the number of pounds in 
a bushel of the grain which you are measuring, to get the number 
of bushels in the bin. 

How does this compare with the rule ? which is as follows : find 
the cubic contents of the bin in feet and there will be .8 as many 
bushels as cubic feet. 

17. Measuring Hay 

Object. To determine the number of tons of hay in a stack or 
mow. 
- Materials. Tape measure. 

Directions. Measure the length, width, and depth of the mow, 
and compute the number of cubic feet, and divide the product 
by 350. This will give approximately the number of tons in a 
stack or mow. The estimate will be only approximate. It will 
vary with the quality and compactness of the hay. 

18. Measuring Silage 

Object. To determine the number of tons of silage in a silo. 

Materials. Tape measure. 

Directions. Compute the cubic contents of the silo in feet, and 
multiply the product by 40, as there are approximately 40 pounds 
to the cubic foot. To get the tons, divide by 2000. This estimate 



Laboratory Exercises 363 

will only be approximate, as the weight of silage varies with the 
depth below the surface, with the amount of water in silage, and 
with the diameter of the silo. 

19. Scoring the Dairy Cow 

Object. To compare good and poor dairy cows. 

Materials. A good and a poor dairy cow ; a score-card. 

Directions. With the score-card in hand very carefully go over 
the animals and compare each point mentioned on the card. 
Note the udders especially, page 132. 

20. Measuring Dairy Cows 

Object. To see if there is any relation between form and func- 
tion in dairy cows. 

Materials. A dairy herd. Measure as in Exercise 3. 

Directions. Cows of a triple-wedge form are more desirable. 
To possess this form they must be much larger around the body 
just back of the hips and in front of the udder, than they are around 
the heart. Measure several good producing cows, and several 
poor producing. Average the front measurements of the good 
producers ; then the hind measurements ; do likewise for the poor 
producing. Is there a greater difference between the fore and hind 
measurements in the good cows than between the fore and hind 
measurements of the poor cows? Take measurements suggested 
on page 133. 

21. Forming Ration for Dairy Cow 

Object. To learn to form ration for a dairy cow with given foods 
at stated prices. 

Materials. None. 

Directions. Form a ration for a 1000-pound dairy cow, yielding 
15 pounds of milk per day, using any of the foods in Exercise 14. 
The ration should contain 24 pounds of dry matter with a nutritive 



364 Animal Husbandry 

ratio of 1 : 5.5. Approximately one-third of the dry matter should 
be grain, one-third should be silage, and one-third should be hay. 
What is the cost of the ration with foods at prices given ? 

22. Cost of Milk 

Object. To determine the cost of milk production. 

Materials. Dairy herd and a pair of scales. 

Directions. Weigh the food consumed by a cow and the milk 
she yields one day each month during the lactation period. Mul- 
tiply the food consumed and the milk yield that day by the num- 
ber of days in the month. Keep this record from month to month. 
On weigh days take a sample of the milk and test for butter fat 
(see Exercise 27) . Calculate the pounds of fat given for the month. 
Calculate the cost of food each month, using prices obtained from 
the local grain dealer. You have the food consumed, its cost, the 
milk flow, and the butter fat by months. 

23. Removing Horns 

Object. To remove horns without injury to the animal. 
Materials. A calf under three weeks of age ; a stick of caustic 
potash ; a pair of shears. 
Directions. See page 153. 

24. Plans for a Cow Barn 

Object. To learn the general arrangement and space required 
in a cow barn. 

Materials. Drawing materials. 

Directions. Show ground plan, outside dimensions of barn, 
including silo, also dimensions and arrangements of stalls, feed 
rooms, milk room, and the like. Estimate the cubic space for each 
animal. How much silage space would you provide for each ani- 
mal? 



Laboratory Exercises 365 

25. Rough Analysis of Milk 

Object. To become familiar with the constituents of milk. 

Materials. Milk, two-quart fruit jar, cheese cloth, beakers, ren- 
net, funnels, filters, thermometer, platinum or porcelain evaporat- 
ing dishes, test tubes. 

Directions. Place about one pint of milk in a two quart fruit 
jar. Heat to about 70 F. Shake vigorously until lumps of a 
yellowish substance collect. This substance is butter. Some 
fat will remain in the milk and cannot be collected. Remove the 
fat by straining through cheese cloth. The milk which runs 
through is called skimmed milk, or milk serum. 

Empty the skimmed milk into a convenient dish, such as a beaker. 
Heat to about 90 F. and add one cubic centimeter of rennet, 
stir thoroughly for about 15 to 20 seconds. Let stand for about 
10 minutes. Strain through three thicknesses of cheese cloth. 
The white material which remains on the cloth is casein or curd. 
Filter some of the material which goes through the cheese cloth 
through filter paper, so that it is clear. Boil for about one minute 
about 25 cubic centimeters of the filtrate in a test tube or beaker. 
The white flocculent precipitate is albumen. Filter the solution 
through a filter paper. The albumen will collect on the filter. 
Collect the filtrate and evaporate it to dryness in a platinum or 
porcelain dish. The substance which remains is principally milk 
sugar. 

26. Qualitative Determination of Milk Ash 

Object. To determine the ash of milk qualitatively. 

Materials. Milk, graduated pipette, nitric acid concentrated, 
platinum or porcelain evaporating dishes, water bath. 

Directions. Place in a platinum or porcelain evaporating dish 
18 cubic centimeters of milk, add 5 cubic centimeters of concen- 
trated nitric acid. Heat to dryness in a water bath. Burn to 
a gray ash over a low flame. Do not burn too rapidly. 



366 Animal Husbandry 

27. Test foe the Pee Cent of Fat by the Babcock Method 

Object. To find the per cent of fat in whole milk. 

Materials. Babcock tester, whole milk bottles, 17.6 cubic 
centimeter pipette, 17.5 cubic centimeter acid measure, sulfuric 
acid, two samples of whole milk of different per cents of fat. 

Directions. Test the two samples of whole milk as directed, 
page 161. 

28. Babcock Test of Skimmed Milk 

Object. To find the per cent of fat in skimmed milk. 

Materials. Same as used in testing whole milk, except skimmed 
milk bottles must be substituted for whole milk bottles. Samples 
of skimmed milk. 

Directions. Test skimmed milk as directed in the above ex- 
ercise, paying special attention to using extra acid (20 c.c.) and 
whirling an extra length of time. 

29. Babcock Test of Ceeam 

Object. To find the per cent of fat in cream. 

Materials. Babcock tester, 17.6 cubic centimeter pipette, 
17.5 cubic centimeter acid measure, cream test bottles, balances 
for weighing cream, sulfuric acid. 

Directions. Weigh 18 grams of cream into a cream test bottle 
and proceed as in whole milk. 

In the absence of a balance and cream test bottle, cream may 
be tested by emptying a 17.6 cubic centimeter pipette of the 
sample into two or more test bottles, dividing the amount about 
equally between the bottles, and filling the pipette with water once 
or twice, which is then in turn divided about equally between the 
test bottles. The fat in the cream is found by adding the read- 
ings obtained in each of the bottles. 

Since the weight of a given measurement of cream depends on 



Laboratory Exercises 367 

the percentage of fat contained in the sample, the former method 
is the more accurate. 



30. Babcock Test of Whole Milk using Different Amounts 

of Acid 

Object. To show the effect of different amounts of acid upon 
the sample in performing the Babcock test. 

Materials. Same as previously given for testing whole milk. 

Directions. Test a sample of milk in the ordinary way. Re- 
test the same as follows : after measuring 17.8 cubic centimeters 
of milk into the test bottle, add sulfuric acid up to the base of 
the bottle neck. Run the sample seven minutes and then add 
enough water to bring the fat into the graduated neck, and then 
run the sample one minute. Then read the per cent of fat and note 
the effect of the extra acid upon the fat column. 

31. Effect of Dirt in the Keeping Qualities of Milk 

Object. To show the relation of dirt and dust to the keeping 
quality of milk. 

Materials. Some fresh milk, glass bottles or test tubes. 

Directions. Mix the milk thoroughly and divide into several 
lots and treat as follows : (1) Set aside at room temperature ; 
(2) add a few hairs taken from the body of a cow ; (3) add a piece 
of cobweb carrying dirt ; (4) add some hay dust ; (5) expose for 
a few minutes in an open pail to the dust of the room after sweep- 
ing ; (6) add two or three small pieces of hay. 

Shake the samples to incorporate the dirt in the milk and set 
aside at room temperature and note time of curdling and odor and 
appearance of curd. Do any show bubbles of gas due to the gas- 
producing bacteria? Compare with the untreated sample. Any 
changes in the milk are due to the bacteria carried on the added 
dirt. 



368 Animal Husbandry 

32. Study of the Keeping Quality of Milk 

Object. To show the effect of temperature on the keeping 
quality of milk. 

Materials. Some fresh milk, sterile test tubes plugged with 
cotton or some small glass jars or bottles, and a thermometer. 

Directions. Sterilize six jars or bottles by thoroughly scalding 
them in boiling water. Thoroughly mix the milk and put about 
equal amounts in each test tube or jar. Hold one at each of the 
following temperatures : 45°, 50°, 55°, 60°, 70°, 80° for several 
hours. This can be done by putting the test tubes or jars in dishes 
of water and using ice for holding the lower temperatures and hot 
water for the higher ones. The different temperatures should be 
maintained for from five to eight hours. At the end of this period, 
place all the jars at the same temperature and note the time when 
each curdles. It is well to get the milk from several sources and 
run different series of samples. If the samples are held at the 
different temperatures during the day, and placed together at the 
close of school, some may curdle during the following night, but 
most of them will curdle during the next day, and enough data can 
be obtained to show a difference in the keeping quality. 

33. Pasteurization of Milk 

Object. To show the effect of heating upon the keeping qual- 
ity of milk. 

Materials. Some fresh milk from a clean stable and some from 
a dirty stable and some clean test tubes with cotton plugs. 

Directions. Fill seven test tubes from each sort of milk to a depth 
of 1J to 2 inches. Place one of each at room temperature. Heat 
a dish of water to 145° F. Place the remaining tubes of milk in 
the water, and remove as follows : — 

One of each kind of milk at the end of 1 minute 
One of each kind of milk at the end of 2 minutes 
One of each kind of milk at the end of 3 minutes 



Laboratory Exercises 369 

One of each kind of milk at the end of 5 minutes 
One of each kind of milk at the end of 10 minutes 
One of each kind of milk at the end of 15 minutes 
One of each kind of milk at the end of 20 minutes 
Cool all samples to a temperature of 70° and leave standing 
at room temperature and note the changes in appearance during 
the next two or three days. This exercise may be repeated, using 
lower and higher temperatures. 

34. Study of Milk Bacteria 

Object. Study of milk bacteria under the microscope. 

Materials. A compound microscope, some microscopic slides, 
some Fuchsin or methyline blue staining solution, and several 
samples of milk at different ages and degrees of cleanliness. 

Directions. With a small wire loop or other instrument smear 
a small drop of milk on a small area of glass slide, being sure to 
spread at least a part of it very thin. Allow this to dry in the air, 
and then cover the smeared milk with a few drops of the staining 
solution. Allow this to act about one minute and then wash off 
till no more stain is removed. Examine under the microscope. 
If the field is too darkly stained, it can be cleaned by putting on 
a few drops of alcohol and washing off immediately* 

35. Preparation of a Starter Culture for Butter Making 

Object. Study of a starter. 

Materials. Six one-quart milk bottles, one kettle or similar 
utensil, 8 to 12 inches deep, one cup, some clean, tough paper, 
some twine, one thermometer, several teaspoons, one culture of 
starter, one quart of good skimmed or whole milk. (Starter cul- 
tures may be obtained from dealers, whose advertisements appear 
in the dairy journals.) 

Directions. 1. Divide the one quart of milk evenly into three 
2b 



370 Animal Husbandry 

bottles: Tie some paper over the top to prevent contamination. 
(Bottle caps are good.) 

2. Fill the kettle or similar utensil about one-half full of water. 

3. Place the three bottles, each containing one-third of a quart 
of milk, in the water. (Bottles must not touch the bottom if 
heated over a fire). Support the bottles to prevent them from 
tipping over. Wire or cord may be used. 

4. Place on a stove or over a gas jet, or insert a steam jet. 
(Heat slowly to prevent breaking the glass.) Hold above 180° F. 
for 30 minutes (the boiling temperature is not too high). 

5. Cool at 90° F. (To prevent breaking the glass, lower the 
temperature rather slowly.) Shake the bottle often or the milk 
in the center of the bottle will not be cooled sufficiently. To cool, 
let a stream of cold water flow into the kettle. 

6. Loosen the covers but do not remove them. Open carefully 
the package of starter. Now remove a bottle cover or cap suf- 
ficiently to introduce the starter. (Pour in one-third of the com- 
mercial culture in each bottle.) Shake to distribute the lactic 
acid bacteria throughout the pasteurized milk. In shaking, use 
rotary motion to prevent contamination by the milk coming in 
contact with the cover. 

7. Incubate at about 70° to 85°. The temperature must be 
fairly constant. When a soft, custard-like curd forms, the starter 
is ripe. This will require from 12 to 24 hours. 

8. When ripe, set in cool place (50° or below) until time for 
examination. 



36. Study of Stakter made in Last Exercise 

Object. To become familiar with a good starter. 

Materials. Starter made at last exercise. 

Directions. Without shaking the starter, inspect the curd for 
gas pockets. It should be perfectly free from gas pockets which 
indicate the presence of undesirable bacteria. Now shake well 






Laboratory Exercises 371 

and pour some into a cup. With a teaspoon, dip some out. First 
smell it, and then put the entire spoonful into the mouth. It 
should have a pleasant sour taste and smell. (Often the first 
propagation is not so pleasant as the later ones, because of the 
presence of the original medium, which is usually disagreeable.) 

Repeat the above exercise with these two exceptions : first, 
in the inoculation, instead of using the commercial culture, trans- 
fer from 2 to 10 per cent of your own newly made starter. Second, 
incubate at about 60° to 75° F. instead of the higher temperature 
in above Exercise, for the bacteria are now more active. It re- 
quires experience to regulate the amount of inoculation and the 
temperature to ripen the starter in the given time. 

37. Cottage Cheese Making 

Object. To acquaint the pupil with one of the uses of skimmed 
milk and buttermilk. 

Materials. Thermometer, milk pan holding about three quarts, 
one milk pail, one-half yard of white cotton cloth, one quart 
skimmed milk, one quart buttermilk and one ounce salt. Use 
clean thermometer. 

Directions. Pour the skimmed milk and the buttermilk into the 
milk pan. Heat to 90° F. and leave undisturbed till firmly coagu- 
lated. Attach the cotton cloth over the top of the pail so that it 
will serve as a strainer. Pour the coagulated milk on the strainer. 
After the watery portion (whey) has drained off, the " curd " is 
left. Remove the strainer with curd in it from the pail top and 
place it on a table or board. Sprinkle one ounce of salt over the 
curd and work it in by kneading the curd with the hands. The 
cheese is then ready for eating. When sold, it is molded into 
small cylindrical forms and wrapped in parchment paper and 
tinfoil. 

Sandwich cheese is made by adding chopped nuts to the cottage 
curd while the salt is being worked in. 






372 Animal Husbandry 

38. Weight of Dressed Carcass by Measurement 

Object. To determine the weight of the carcass by measuring 
the animal while alive. 

Materials. A cow or steer soon to be slaughtered and a tape 
measure. 

Directions. Measure the animal at the girth, and the length from 
point of shoulder to the quarters. Multiply the square of the 
girth in feet by the length in feet and by .25 and the answer should 
be the dressed weight in imperial stones. There are 14 pounds in 
a stone. 

39. Cuts of Meat 

Object. To learn the various cuts of meat, their location, and 
market value. 

Materials. Access to butcher shop containing carcasses of beef, 
pork, and mutton. 

Directions. Note the sides or quarters of each class, beef, pork, 
and mutton, as they hang on the hook. Note where the carcasses 
have been halved and quartered ; methods of telling young car- 
casses from old ones ; and methods of telling a good one from a 
poor one. Ask the butcher to locate the various cuts. If con- 
venient, have him cut a few slices from each part. Make a care- 
ful study of each and compare one with the other. Ask the price 
and approximately the weights of each cut. According to the 
diagram, page 142, figure total weight of cuts, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
and 11, as given by the butcher. Also figure the total selling 
price according to the price he gives you. In like manner, figure 
total weight of cuts 3, 10, 12, 13 and 14, and total selling price. 
Compare the two groups. Work a similar problem in pork and 
mutton (pp, 230, 282). 

40. Wool 

Object. To learn the various classes of wool. 
Materials. Wool from two or more breeds of sheep and a mag- 
nifying glass. 



Laboratory Exercises 



373 



Directions. Examine the samples closely with naked eye ; 
then with a magnifying glass. 



Clothing 



Delaine 



Classification of Wool 

Fine 

Medium Staple 2 inches in length or less, or unsound 

Coarse 

Fine Staple 2 or 3 inches in length 

Medium 



[Fine 
Combing | Medium Staple over 3 inches long, strong, and sound 
I Coarse 

Condition and Quality of Wool 

f Fine or close 

1. Crimp Open or wavy 

[ Uniformity 

2. Soundness. Take a small lock and stretch evenly and gently till un- 

soundness is shown by giving away at some part. Note point 
at which unsoundness appears. 

Suggestions for study. Write to a fine wool, a coarse wool, and a 
long wool sheep breeder for samples of wool. The names and 
addresses of these breeders can be obtained from advertisements 
in agricultural papers. 



41. Forming a Ration for Sheep 

Object. To learn to form a ration for sheep with given foods at 
stated prices. 

Materials. None. 

Directions. Form a ration for 10 sheep using any of the foods 
in Exercise 14. The ration should contain 25 pounds dry matter 
with a ration of 1:6. Approximately one-half of the dry matter 
should be grain. What is the cost of the ration at prices given ? 



374 Animal Husbandry 

42. Plan for Sheep Barn 

Object. To learn the general arrangement and space required 
in a sheep barn. 

Materials. Drawing materials. 

Directions. Show ground plan and arrangement of feed racks 
and feed room and the like. Figure the cubic space for each ani- 
mal. How does this compare with the horse and cow? 

43. Age, Sex, and Vitality of Fowls 

Object. To determine age, sex, and vitality in fowls. 

Materials. Several fowls of different ages, sexes, and constitu- 
tional vigor ; suitable coops in which they can be displayed. 

Directions. Examine the different fowls and note their age, as 
indicated by the wrinkled condition of the face, length of toe 
nails, beak, and spurs, cleanliness of shank from scales or roughness 
(p. 307). It is difficult to distinguish the age of fowls over two 
years old. Often hens just completing their molt look like pullets, 
and pullets which lay and molt in the fall look like hens. 

Observe that the sexes differ in kind and abundance of plumage, 
and shape of feathers, in size of comb and spur, and in voice. 

Grade the specimens from strong to weak, page 324. 

44. Egg and Meat Types 

Object. To learn to distinguish the characteristics of egg and 
meat type fowls. 

Materials. Several specimens of egg, meat, and general purpose 
fowls ; suitable coops ; obtain fowls of different size, shape, and 
temperament from the same breed. 

Directions. Study each individual, noting length of body, depth 
and width of abdomen, width of pelvic bones, alertness, body 
condition, and vitality in the egg type fowl, as contrasted to the 



Laboratory Exercises 375 

square, deep breast, larger size and more sluggish attitude of the 
meat fowl. 

45. Making Materials for killing Chicken Lice 

Object. The preparation of a powder and a liquid for killing 
lice and mites. 

Materials. One-fourth pint crude carbolic acid, three-fourths 
pint gasoline, and two and one-half pounds of plaster of paris or 
a multiple of these amounts, also one pint crude carbolic acid and 
three pints kerosene or a multiple quantity. One pan, one pail, 
mixing ladle, one mosquito mesh wire screen. 

Directions. For the powder, mix the carbolic acid and gasoline 
together thoroughly. Sprinkle this mixture on the plaster of 
paris and stir until the whole become a homogeneous pinkish 
brown mixture. Spread out thin on paper until dry, screen and 
make fluffy, then box it for future use. 

For the liquid lice killer, mix the crude carbolic acid with the 
kerosene in the formula of 1 to 3. Apply as soon as possible, pref- 
erably in the form of a fine spray. 

46. Killing Chicken Lice 

Object. To apply lice powders and liquid lice killers. 

Materials. Access to a poultry house and flock. A good supply 
of both the lice powder and the liquid lice killer ; a foot pump and 
pail or hand force pump ; a large box with door at one end and at 
top ; shovel ; and several empty baking powder cans. 

Directions. Quietly drive the fowls into the box, preferably by 
putting the open door of the box on the outside of the house just 
in front of the exit. Clean off the nests and droppings boards, 
and if the pen be badly infested, remove the litter. Thoroughly 
spray the roosts, droppings platform, nests, and wall near the roosts 
with the liquid. Take care to force the liquid into all crevices and 
cracks. 



376 Animal Husbandry 

If the house is badly infested, also spray the floor and entire 
wall area. Drive several nail holes into the top of the baking 
powder can and use it to shake the powder into the feathers. 
Thoroughly dust each fowl with the powder. One student should 
hold the fowl head downward and legs spread apart while another 
shakes the powder into the feathers, and with his free hand works 
it into the skin. 

Every fowl should be treated. In order to kill the lice or mites 
which hatch out after the first application, a second should be made 
10 days later. 

47. Poultry Houses 

Object. To make a working drawing of a poultry house for lay- 
ing fowls. 

Materials. Drawing paper ; drawing board ; scale rule ; com- 
passes ; hard pencil. 

Directions. Make a working drawing (showing only the impor- 
tant details) of a poultry house. 

1. Cross-section view showing roosts, nests, wall, and floor 
construction and dimensions. 

2. Front view showing windows, etc., and dimensions. 

3. Ground plan showing interior arrangement. 

4. Estimate square feet of floor space, cubic feet of air space, 
number of square feet of floor to each square foot of glass area, 
number of square feet of floor to each square foot of cloth area 
(p. 340). 

48. Coop for Hen with Chicks 

Object. To make a box coop with covered run for hens with 
chicks. 

Materials. Hammer, nails, saw, square, one box at least 2 feet 
on each side and 18 inches deep, extra matched lumber and small 
pieces to use as cleats, wire or lath for the covered run. 

Directions. Remove the top of the box. Saw diagonally through 



Laboratory Exercises 377 

the heavy end boards from the top corner to a point 6 inches lower 
at the rear. Remove the top rear board to the level. Saw enough 
of the match boards a proper length, so that they will entirely cover 
this top opening and allow for small eaves. Fasten these boards 
together with cleats, making the lower cleat fit loosely against the 
rear side of the box. This will hold the cover in place and allow 
it to be removed at will. Make an opening in the lower front 
side in which to place a 7 inch X 9 inch window glass. Fasten 
grooved guides below and above this opening to fit the window 
sash and allow it to be pushed open or shut. Bore four 1 inch 
holes in the front side just above the window. Make a convenient 
sized frame run and cover with fine mesh wire or cleats. 

49. Feed-Hoppers for Poultry 

Object. To make a force feed-hopper. 

Materials. Hammer, crosscut and rip saws, pair of wire clip- 
pers, 2 pair light hinges, 1 pound 8d. nails, 2 hooks and eyes, 15 
feet of No. 8 wire, 1 piece tin 6 inches wide and 5 feet long, 50 
feet square-planed and matched lumber. 

Directions. Square the ends of the 10 inch board and saw 
through the middle at a 45° angle to give the bevel at the top. 
Fasten cleats on these ends extending from 1 inch inside the lower 
corner of the beveled end to within 3 inches of the bottom end and 
6 inches of the front. Lay these ends on the floor 5 feet apart, 
front edge up. In this position nail the front boards to these 
cleats. Next, fasten a 5 inch board across the front at the bottom. 
Drive pieces of wire 8 inches long, \ inch into this bottom board 
2 inches apart. Bend these wires back against the body of the 
hopper and fasten with a small staple. A door to close the fowls 
away from the feed can now be made the size of this area and 
hinged above the wires. Next, nail a board across the top at 
the back and hinge a door to this board, covering the rest of the 
top (Fig. 139) . The hopper is now ready to be hooked to the side 



378 Animal Husbandry 

wall of the poultry house, resting on the floor of the pen or on a 
platform 1 foot above the floor and 18 inches wide. The tin is bent 
and securely fastened to the side of the wall and to the platform. 

50. Structure of the Egg 

Object. To study the structure of an egg. 

Materials. One lens, and facilities for boiling eggs. Each 
pupil should be supplied with two eggs, if possible, one with a 
light shell, the other with a dark shell ; two saucers ; one drawing 
pencil ; one box of colored lead-pencils ; a knife. 

An egg-tester can be made by placing a lamp in a box with a 
hole, slightly smaller than the egg, cut through the side. Or, the 
egg may be held up to a similar hole in the curtain of a darkened 
room. In either case, look through the egg toward the light. 

1. Strength of the egg shell. — Let the student hold a hard-shelled 
egg between the clasped hands, the ends of the egg in the hollow 
of the hand, and try to break it. 

Observe the great strength of the shell, due to the arrangement 
of the particles in an arch similar to the stones or bricks in the 
arch of a bridge. 

2. The contents of an uncooked egg. — (a) Break a fresh, uncooked 
egg in a saucer by separating the shell in the middle. 

Observe the " germinal disk," which appears as a light-colored 
spot usually to be found on the upper surface of the yolk. 

The germinal disk contains the life principle of the egg. Being 
on the upper surface, it remains in close contact with the source 
of heat during natural incubation. 

(b) Note the " chalaza," or the whitish cords of denser albu- 
men on the sides of the yolk toward either end of the egg. These 
cords of denser albumen serve to keep the yolk properly suspended 
within the albumen. Thus the chick, which develops on the upper 
surface of the yolk, is protected from injury, if, through rough 
handling, it should come in contact with the shell. 



Laboratory Exercises 



379 



(c) Note the transparent, watery appearance of the albumen 
(white of the egg). 

The albumen supplies in liquid form the food by which the 
chick grows within the shell. 

(d) Examine the shell and notice the air-space usually found 
near the large end. Observe the two tough membranes best 
seen at the air-space where the membranes separate. 

The air-space furnishes a readily available supply of fresh air 
to the embryo chick. The two membranes prevent the too rapid 



TN/HHER ALBUMEN 

(white) 

TH/CKER ALBUMEN 

(wh/te) 



CHALAZA 
COA/CENTR/C LAYER 
/NNER MEMBRANE- 




GERM SPOT, OR D/SC, 
OR l/ES/CLE 

-DARK YVLK 
LIGHT YOLK 
CHALAZA 

outer membrane: 

A/R SPACE 
SHELL 



Fig. 152. — Section of an egg. 



evaporation of moisture through the pores of the shell, but allow 
oxygen to enter the egg and carbon dioxid to pass out. 

(e) By placing a section of the shell under the lens, indentations 
or pores in the shell may be observed. 

These thinner parts permit the gases to pass through the shell 
more readily. If the pores of the shell are closed by oil, varnish, 
dirt, or broken egg, the chick will be smothered. 

(/) Note the pigment of the shell, which gives to each egg its 
characteristic color. 

Observe how the first eggs laid for a brood are more pronounced 
in color, and how the color pigment decreases with each egg that 
is laid, due to exhaustion of the supply. 

3. The structure of a boiled egg. — Crack the large end of a 
hard-boiled egg carefully. Remove the shell, piece by piece, to 
avoid tearing the shell membrane. 



380 Animal Husbandry 

(a) Observe the air-space and the two membranes, which are 
separated with difficulty. Note that the outer membrane is the 
thicker and tougher. 

(6) Cut the egg lengthwise through the middle. Observe the 
lighter-colored, flask-shaped center of the yolk, and the darker 
yolk arranged around it in concentric layers. Note the " ger- 
minal vesicle," or " germinal disk" at the upper part of the light 
yolk. Observe that the yolk is at one side and not in the center 
of the white of the egg. Note also that the germinal disk is on 
the upper side of the yolk. This is because the yolk is lighter in 
weight than the albumen and hence floats. The germinal disk 
on the surface of the white yolk is lighter than the dark yolk. 

Snyder gives the chemical composition of the dry substance of 
the inside of the egg as : — 



Albumen (white of the egg) 
Yolk 



Protein 


Fat 


88.92 


.53 


20.62 


64.43 



It will be seen that there is a large amount of fat in the yolk 
and almost no fat in the albumen. Fat is lighter than albumen, 
hence rises to the surface. This may be observed in practice 
by holding a fresh egg in front of an egg-tester and noting the 
tendency of the yolk to float upward. 

This tendency of the yolk to float to the surface makes it neces- 
sary to turn eggs frequently when they are kept for hatching, 
otherwise the yolk will rise until the germinal disk comes in con- 
tact with the shell membrane. It will then become dry by evapo- 
ration and adhere to the membrane. If the egg is then turned 
the germ will be killed. 

4. Make a drawing of the longitudinal section of the egg, show- 
ing : (a) The shell and its pores, (b) The two shell membranes 
turned back from the shell, (c) The air-space, (d) The three 
layers of albumen, (e) The vitelline membrane surrounding the 
yolk. (/) The vltellus contained within the vitelline membrane. 



Laboratory Exercises 381 

(g) The white yolk and the dark yolk showing its concentric 
layers, (h) The germinal disk, (i) The chalaza (" hammock 
cords "). 

51. Preserving Eggs 

Object. To preserve eggs. 

Materials. One pint " N " grade silicate of soda (waterglass) ; 
one two-gallon earthen jar ; several dozen of fresh eggs. 

Directions. Select clean, unwashed eggs. Wash out the jar 
in boiling hot water. Fill the jar with the eggs to within 2 inches 
of the top. Dilute the waterglass in nine times its bulk of water. 
Pour this mixture into the jar of eggs until all of the eggs are well 
covered. Cover the eggs with a plate to keep them below the 
level of the waterglass. Cover the jar and set in a cool cellar. 
Visit the jar every month to replace the water which has been lost 
through evaporation. 



382 Animal Husbandry 

PART II 
AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY 

The school should secure a complete set of the Farmers' Bulletins 
of the United States Department of Agriculture. These may be 
obtained from the Congressman of the district or by writing to 
the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 

Write to your Congressman for such copies of the Yearbook of 
the Department of Agriculture as he may have for distribution, 
stating that they are for the school library. 

Write to your State Experiment Station for copies of available 
bulletins and reports, and ask to be placed upon the mailing 
list. 

Write to the State Board of Agriculture, asking whether it has 
publications for distribution. 

Copies of a few good farm papers and country-life magazines 
are desirable for the reading-table. 

The following books are recommended as among the best for 
Agricultural reference : — 

Feeds and Feeding, by W. A. Henry, Madison, Wis. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb, Columbus, O. 

Breeding Farm Animals, F. R. Marshall, Columbus, O. 

Physics of Agriculture, F. H. King, Madison, Wis. 

The Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt, State College, Penn. 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening, L. H. Bailey, Ithaca, N.Y. 

The Principles of Fruit-Growing, L. H. Bailey, Ithaca, N.Y. 

Principles of Soil Management, Lyon and Fippen, Ithaca, N.Y. 



Laboratory Exercises 



383 



PART III 



ADDRESSES OF AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND EXPERI- 
MENT STATIONS AND THE UNITED STATES DEPART- 
MENT OF AGRICULTURE 

When not otherwise indicated, the college and experiment station 
are at the same place. Any letter addressed to the " Agricultural 
College " or " Experiment Station/' with proper post-office address 
will reach the institution. 



Alabama — 

College of Agriculture and Ex- 
periment Station, Auburn. 

Canebrake Station, Uniontown. 

Tuskegee Station, Tuskegee. 
Alaska — Sitka. 
Arizona — Tucson. 
Arkansas — Fayetteville. 
California — Berkeley. 
Colorado — Fort Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State Station, New Haven. 

Agricultural College and Storrs 
Experiment Station — Storrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Hawaii — 

Federal Station — Honolulu. 

Sugar Planters' Station — Hon- 
olulu. 
Idaho — - Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — Baton Rouge. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East Lansing. 



Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, 
St. Paul. 

Mississippi — Agricultural College. 

Missouri — 

College Station — Columbia. 
Fruit Station — Mountain Grove. 

Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New Hamsphire — Durham. 

New Jersey — New Brunswick. 

New Mexico — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 

New York — 

State Station — Geneva. 
College of Agriculture and 
Cornell Experiment Station — 
Ithaca. 

North Carolina — 

College Station — West Raleigh. 
State Station — Raleigh. 

North Dakota — Agricultural Col- 
lege. 

Ohio — 

Experiment Station — Wooster. 
College of Agriculture — Colum- 
bus. 

Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State College. 

Porto Rico — Mayaguez. 

Rhode Island — Kingston. 



384 



Animal Husbandry 



South Carolina — Clemson College. 
South Dakota — Brookings. 
Tennessee — Knoxville. 
Texas — College Station. 
Utah — Logan. 
Vermont — Burlington. 



Virginia — Blacksburg. 
Washington —r- Pullman. 
West Virginia — Morgantown. 
Wisconsin — Madison. 
Wyoming — Laramie. 



The United States Department of Agriculture is located at 
Washington, D.C. One may address the Secretary of Agriculture 
or write to one of the Divisions of the Department. The most 
important ones are as follows : — ■ 



Weather Bureau. 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 
Forest Service. 
Bureau of Chemistry. 
Bureau of Soils. 



Bureau of Entomology. 
Bureau of Biological Survey. 
Division of Publications. 
Bureau of Statistics. 
Office of Experiment Stations. 
Office of Public Roads. 



The most important addresses in Canada are : — 

College, St. Anns de 



Dominion Department of Agricul 

ture, Ottawa. 
Ontario Agricultural College, 

Guelph. 






Agricultural 

Bellevue. 
Agricultural College, Winnipeg. 



Laboratory Exercises 



385 



PART IV 

AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF FEEDING STUFFS 

As a rule under average farm conditions, it is not practi- 
cable to weigh each mess of food, nor is it necessary, as meas- 
uring is sufficiently accurate. The food from the measure 
should be weighed a few times at the beginning. To aid 
in approximating the weight of the various foods, the follow- 
ing table of weights and measures is quoted from Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 222 : — 

Average Weights of Different Feeding Stuffs 



Feeding Stuff 



Corn, whole 

Corn, meal 

Corn, bran 

Corn and cob meal . . . 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Germ meal 

Hominy meal . . 
Distillers' grains, dried 
Wheat, whole .... 
Wheat, ground .... 

Wheat, bran 

Wheat middlings (standard) 
Wheat middlings (flour) . 
Buckwheat middlings . . 

Oats, whole 

Oats, ground .... 

Rye, whole 

Rye, meal 

Rye, bran 

Barley, whole .... 

Barley, meal 

Brewers' dried grains . . 
Malt sprouts .... 
Linseed meal, old process 
Linseed meal, new process 
Cotton-seed meal . . . 

' 2c 



One Quart 


One Pound 


Weighs 


Measures 


Pounds 


Quarts 


1.7 


0.6 


1.5 


0.7 


0.5 


2.0 


1.4 


0.7 


1.7 


0.6 


1.3 


0.8 


1.4 


0.7 


1.1 


0.9 


0.6 


1.2 


2.0 


0.5 


1.7 


0.6 


0.5 


2.0 


0.8 


1.3 


1.2 


O.S 


1.3 


0.8 


1.0 


1.0 


0.7 


1.4 


1.7 


0.6 


1.5 


0.7 


0.6 


1.8 


1.5 


0.7 


1.1 


0.9 


0.6 


1.7 


0.6 


1.7 


1.1 


0.9 


0.9 


1.1 


1.5 


0.7 



386 



Animal Husbandry 



PART V 

ENERGY VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

In calculating a ration for any class of farm animals on the 
energy basis, the energy value of each food must be known. The 
following table is from Farmers' Bulletin No. 346, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values per 
100 Pounds 



Feeding Stuff 



Green fodder and silage : 

Alfalfa 

Clover — crimson . . . 

Clover — red .... 

Corn fodder — green . . 

Corn silage 

Hungarian grass . . . 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodders : 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay — red . . . 

Corn forage, field cured . 

Corn stover 

Cowpea hay 

Hungarian hay .... 

Oat hay 

Soybean hay .... 

Timothy hay .... 
Straws : 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw .... 
Roots and tubers : 

Carrots 

Mangel-wurzels .... 



Total Dry 

Matter 



Pounds 

28.2 
19.1 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 

91.6 

84.7 
57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 
88.7 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 
9.1 



Digestible 
Protein 



Pounds 

2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 

1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 



Energy Value 



Therms 

12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
42.76 
44.03 
36.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 

20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 



Laboratory Exercises 



387 



Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values per 
100 Pounds 

Continued 



Feeding Stuff 



Potatoes , 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains : 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal . . ' , 

Oats 

Pea meal 

Rye ........ 

Wheat 

By-products : 

Brewers' grains — dried . . 
Brewers' grains — wet 
Buckwheat middlings . 
Cottonseed meal . . . 
Distillers' grains — dried — 

Principally corn . 

Principally rye . . . , 
Gluten feed — dry . . . 
Gluten meal — Buffalo . . 
Gluten meal — Chicago . . 
Linseed meal — old process 
Linseed meal — new process 

Malt sprouts 

Rye bran 

Sugar-beet pulp — fresh . 
Sugar-beet pulp — dried . . 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings . 



Total Dky 
Matter 



Pounds 

21.1 

11.4 

9.4 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 
89.0 
89.5 
88.4 
89.5 

92.0 
24.3 

88.2 
91.8 

93.0 
93.2 
91.0 
91.8 
90.5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10.1 
93.6 
88.1 
84.0 



Digestible 
Protein 



Pounds 

.45 
.88 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 



Energy Value 



Therms 

18.05 
8.00 
5.74 

80.75 
88.84 
72.05 
66.27 
71.75 
81.72 
82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 
88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 



388 



Animal Husbandry 



PART VI 

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FEEDING STUFFS 

In calculating a ration for any class of farm animals, the diges- 
tible nutrients of the foods must be known, as it is the digestible 
part only that is of use to the animal. The following table from 
Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," eleventh edition, gives a very com- 
plete list of American feeding stuffs and their digestible nutrients 
as well as the fertilizing constituents : — 

Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 







Digestible Nutrients 


Fertilizing Constitu- 




Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 


in 100 Lbs. 


ents 


in 1000 Lbs. 


Name op Feed 


Crude 
Protein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Concentrates 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Grains, seeds, and their parts 
















Dent corn 


89.4 


7.8 


66.8 


4.3 


16.5 


7.1 


5.7 


Flint corn 


88.7 


8.0 


66.2 


4.3 


16.8 


7.1 


5.7 


Sweet corn 


91.2 


8.8 


63.7 


7.0 


18.6 


7.1 


5.7 


Corn meal 


85.0 


6.1 


64.3 


3.5 


14.7 


6.3 


4.7 


Corn cob 


89.3 


0.5 


44.8 




3.9 


0.6 


6.0 




Corn-and-cob meal . . 


84.9 


4.4 


60.0 


2.9 


13.6 


5.7 


4.7 


Gluten meal 


90.5 


29.7 


42.5 


6.1 


54.8 


3.3 


0.5 


Gluten feed 


90.8 


21.3 


52.8 


2.9 


40.0 


3.7 


0.4 


Hominy feed (chop) 


90.4 


6.8 


60.5 


7.4 


16.8 


9.8 


4.9 


Germ oil meal .... 


91.^ 


15.8 


38.8 


10.8 


34.7 


3.9 


2.1 


Corn bran 


90.6 


6.0 


52.5 


4.8 


17.9 


10.1 


6.2 


Wheat 


89.5 


8.8 


67.5 


1.5 


19.0 


5.5 


8.7 


High grade flour . - . . 


87.6 


10.6 


65.1 


1.0 


19.2 


5.7 


5.4 


Red dog flour .... 


90.1 


16.2 


57.0 


3.4 


29.4 










Flour wheat middlings 


90.0 


16.9 


53.6 


4.1 


30.7 


12.2 


9.6 


Standard wheat middlings 
















(shorts) 


88.8 


13.0 


45.7 


4.5 


27.0 


26.3 


15.3 



Laboratory Exercises 



389 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Concentrates 
Grains, seeds, and their parts 

Wheat bran, all analyses 
Winter wheat bran 
Spring wheat bran 
Wheat feed 
Wheat screenings 



Rye ... . 

Rye flour . . 
Rye middlings 
Rye bran . . 
Rye feed . . 
Barley . . . 
Barley screenings 
Barley feed 
Emmer (speltz) 

Oats . . . 

Ground oats . 
Oat meal . 
Oat middlings 
Oat feed . . 
Oat dust 
Oat hulls . . 



Buckwheat 
Buckwheat flour 
Buckwheat middlings 
Buckwheat bran 
Buckwheat feed 
Buckwheat hulls 

Rice .... 
Rice meal . . 
Rice polish 
Rice bran . 
Rice hulls . 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

88.1 
88.5 
88.0 
89.1 

88.4 



91.3 

86.9 
88.2 
88.4 
87.6 
89.2 
87.8 
91.1 
92.0 

89.6 
88.0 
92.1 
91.2 
93.0 
93.5 
92.6 



86.6 

85.4 
87.2 
91.8 
88.4 
86.8 

87.6 
89.8 
89.2 
90.3 
91.2 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Lbs. 

11.9 
12.1 
11.9 
12.7 
9.6 

9.5 

5.6 

11.0 

11.2 

12.6 

8.4 

9.5 

11.5 

10.0 

8.8 

10.1 

11.9 

13.1 

5.2 

5.1 

1.3 

8.1 

5.9 
22.7 

5.9 
15.6 

1.2 

6.4 
7.4 
7.9 
7.6 
0.3 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 

42.0 
37.1 
43.1 
47.1 

48.2 

69.4 
72.2 
52.9 
46.8 
56.6 
65.3 
49.9 
60.3 
70.3 

49.2 
52.5 
65.1 

57.7 
30.1 
32.8 
38.5 

48.2 
63.0 
37.5 
34.0 

38.2 
28.6 

79.2 
48.3 
58.6 
38.8 
19.9 



Fat 



Lbs. 

2.5 

2.8 
3.1 
4.0 
1.9 

1.2 

0.5 
2.6 
1.8 
2.8 
1.6 
2.5 
2.9 
2.0 

4.3 
3.7 
6.7 
6.5 
2.6 
2.3 
0.6 

2.4 
1.2 
6.1 
2.0 
4.4 
0.5 

0.4 
11.9 
5.3 
7.3 
0.7 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

24.6 
25.1 
25.1 
26.1 
20.0 

18.1 
10.7 
22.9 
23.3 
25.1 
19.2 
19.7 
22.1 
18.4 

18.2 
19.7 
23.5 
25.9 
12.8 
21.6 
5.3 

17.3 
11.0 
42.7 
20.2 
29.3 
7.3 

11.8 
19.2 
19.0 
19.0 
5.1 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 



26.9 



20.4 
11.7 

8.6 

8.2 

12.3 

22.8 
7.7 
7.9 

6.6 
7.6 

7.8 
7.6 

22.5 
6.1 

1.6 

6.9 

6.8 
12.3 

4.2 
15.8 

4.3 

1.8 

26.7 
2.9 
1.7 



Potash 



Lbs. 



15.2 



5.4 

8.4 

5.8 

6.5 

9.6 

14.0 

4.7 
4.8 

3.4 

5.7 

4.8 
5.0 

15.3 

7.2 

4.9 

3.0 
3.4 
11.4 
12.7 
10.5 
14.7 

0.9 

7.1 
2.4 
1.4 



390 



Animal Husbandry 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 







Digestible Nutrients 


Fertilizing Constitu- 




Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 


in 100 Lbs. 


ents 


in 1000 Lbs. 


Name of Feed 


Crude 
Protein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Concentrates 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Grains, seeds, and their parts 
















Canada field pea .... 


85.0 


19.7 


49.3 


0.4 


37.9 


8.4 


10.1 


Canada field pea meal . . 


89.5 


16.8 


51.7 


0.7 


32.3 


8.2 


9.9 


Canada field pea bran . . 


89.0 


7.7 


41.6 


0.6 


16.0 


3.1 


10.3 


Table bean meal . . . 


89.1 


20.2 


42.3 


1.3 


37.1 


12.0 


12.9 


Cowpea 


85.4 


16.8 


54.9 


1,1 


32.8 


10.1 


12.0 


Soybean 


88.3 


29.1 


23.3 


14.6 


53.6 


10.4 


12.6 


Horse bean 


88.7 


23.1 


49.8 


0.8 


42.6 


12.0 


12.9 


Kafir corn 


90.1 


5.2 


44.3 


1.4 


17.9 










Ground kafir corn heads . 


86.4 


4.2 


42.4 


1.2 


14.7 










Sorghum seed .... 


87.2 


4.5 


61.1 


2.8 


14.6 


8.4 


3.4 


Milo maize seed . . . 


91.0 


4.9 


44.8 


1.3 


17.1 










Ground milo maize heads 


90.3 


4.2 


45.0 


1.1 


14.7 










Broom-corn seed 


87.2 


4.6 


42.2 


1.5 


15.8 


7.2 


5.2 


Millet seed 


87.9 


7.1 


48.5 


2.5 


17.4 


6.5 


3.3 


Hungarian grass seed . . 


90.5 


6.4 


48.8 


3.3 


15.8 


4.7 


3.8 


Flax seed 


90.8 


20.6 


17.1 


29.0 


36.2 


13.9 


10.3 


Linseed meal, old process 


90.2 


30.2 


32.0 


6.9 


54.2 


16.6 


13.7 


Linseed meal, new process 


91.0 


31.5 


35.7 


2.4 


60.0 


17.4 


13.4 


Cotton seed 


89.7 


12.5 


30.0 


17.3 


29.4 


10.5 


10.9 


Cotton seed, roasted 


93.9 


7.9 


25.5 


19.9 


26.9 






Cotton-seed meal . . . 


93.0 


37.6 


21.4 


9.6 


72.5 


30.4 


15.8 


Cotton-seed hulls . . . 


88.9 


0.3 


33.2 


1.7 


6.7 


4.3 


10.4 


Palmnut cake .... 


89.6 


16.0 


52.6 


9.0 


26.9 


11.0 


5.0 


Cocoanut cake .... 


89.7 


15.4 


41.2 


10.7 


31.5 


16.0 


24.0 


Sunflower seed .... 


91.4 


14.8 


29.7 


18.2 


26.1 


12.2 


5.6 


Sunflower seed cake 


89.2 


29.5 


23.3 


8.0 


52.5 


21.5 


11.7 


Peanut kernels, without 
















hulls 


92.5 


25.1 


13.7 


35.6 


44.6 


12.4 


12.7 


Peanut cake 


89.3 


42.8 


20.4 


7.2 


76.2 


20.0 


15.0 


Rape-seed cake .... 


90.0 


25.3 


23.7 


7.6 


49.9 


20.0 


13.0 


Sesame oil cake .... 


92.6 


33.0 


10.9 


23.4 


58.7 


32.7 


14.5 



Laboratory Exercises 



391 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Factory By-Products 

Dried brewers' grains . 
Wet brewers' grains 
Malt sprouts 
Dried distillers' grains 

Apple pomace 
Cassava starch refuse . 
Starch refuse .... 
Wet starch feed . 
Potato pomace . 
Bakery refuse . . . 

Wet beet pulp . . . 
Dried beet pulp . . . 
Sugar-beet molasses 
Porto Rico molasses 
Dried molasses beet pulp 
Molasses grains . . . 
Alfalmo 



colostrum 



Cow's milk 
Cow's milk, 
Skim milk 
Buttermilk 
Whey . . 



Meat scrap . . . 
Meat and bone meal 
Dried blood . . . 
Tankage . 
Dried fish .... 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 

91.3 
23.0 
90.5 
92.4 

17.0 

88.0 
88.0 
31.2 
7.3 
87.0 

10.2 
91.6 
79.2 
74.1 
92.0 
89.6 
90.9 



12.8 

25.4 

9.4 

9.9 

6.2 

89.3 
94.0 
91.5 
93.0 

89.2 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

20.0 

4.9 

20.3 

22.8 

0.6 
0.4 
2.4 
3.7 
0.4 
7.0 

0.5 
4.1 
4.7 
1.4 
6.1 
10.8 
9.8 

3.4 

17.6 

2.9 

3.8 
0.6 

66.2 
36.7 
70.9 
50.1 
45.0 



Car- 
bohy 
drates 



Lbs. 

32.2 

9.4 

46.0 

39.7 

13.1 
74.0 
70.6 
12.4 
6.8 
55.5 

7.7 
64.9 
54.1 
59.2 
68.7 
48.0 
40.8 

4.8 
2.7 
5.3 
3.9 
5.0 



5.5 



Fat 



Lbs. 

6.0 

1.7 

1.4 

11.6 

0.5 
0.6 
1.1 

2.6 
0.1 

4.8 



2.2 

0.9 

3.7 
3.6 
0.3 
1.0 
0.2 

13.4 

10.6 

2.5 

11.6 

11.4 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

40.0 
10.7 
42.1 
49.9 

1.6 
1.2 

7.6 

8.0 

0.9 

12.8 

1.4 
12.9 
14.5 

4.3 
15.4 
27.4 
20.9 

5.8 
28.2 
5.0 
6.4 
1.0 

114.0 

63.2 

135.0 

86.2 

77.4 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 

16.1 
4.2 

17.4 
6.0 

0.1 
0.6 
2.9 
0.5 
0.2 



0.3 
2.2 
0.5 
1.2 
1.5 
8.5 



1.9 
6.6 
2.1 
1.7 
1.1 

81.1 
146.8 

13.5 
139.0 
140.0 



Potash 



Lbs. 

2.0 

0.5 

19.9 

1.7 

0.3 
2.8 
1.5 
0.2 
0.9 



11.4 
3.1 
56.3 
36.8 
18.1 
21.1 



1.7 
1.1 
2.0 
1.6 
2.0 



7.7 
3.0 
3.0 



392 



Animal Husbandry 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Fat 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Dried Roughage 
Field-cured corn forage 

Fodder corn, ears, if any 

remaining 

Corn stover, ears removed 

Corn husks 

Corn leaves 

Sweet corn forage . . . 

Cured hay from the grasses 

English hay 

Hay from mixed grasses . 
Timothy, all analyses . 
Timothy, cut in full bloom 
Timothy, cut soon after 

bloom 

Timothy, cut nearly ripe . 



Meadow foxtail 
Orchard grass 
Red top . . 
White top 
Meadow fescue 



Kentucky blue grass 
Tall oat ... 
Italian rye grass 
Perennial rye grass 
Rowen hay . . 

Bermuda grass 
Johnson grass 
Macaroni wheat 
Barley . . . 
Oat .... 
Emmer (speltz) 



Lbs. 



57.8 
59.5 
49.1 
70.0 
60.0 

86.0 

84.7 
86.8 
85.0 

85.8 
85.9 

93.4 
90.1 
91.1 

86.0 
80.0 



86.0 
86.0 
91.5 
86.0 
86.0 

92.9 
89.9 
93.0 
85.0 
86.0 
93.4 



Lbs. 



'2.5 
1.4 
0.8 
2.8 
3.4 

4.5 
4.2 
2.8 
3.4 

2.5 
2.1 

5.3 
4.9 

4.8 
6.8 
4.2 

4.4 
3.3 
4.5 
6.1 
7.9 

6.4 
2.9 
4.4 
5.7 

4.7 
7.0 



Lbs. 



34.6 
31.2 
33.8 

37.8 
36.2 

44.0 
42.0 
42.4 
43.3 

39.2 
40.1 

41.0 
42.4 
46.9 
40.6 
36.9 

40.2 
41.4 
43.4 

37.8 
42.2 

44.9 
45.6 

48.7 
43.6 
36.7 
43.9 



Lbs. 



1.2 
0.7 
0.2 
0.8 
1.1 

1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.4 

1.5 
1.1 

1.3 
1.4 
1.0 
1.5 
1.5 

0.7 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
1.4 

1.6 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 
1.7 
0.6 



Lbs 



7.2 
6.1 
4.0 
9.8 
9.8 

12.6 

11.9 

9.4 

9.6 

9.1 

8.0 

14.9 
12.9 
12.6 
17.9 
11.2 

12.5 
10.3 
12.0. 
16.2 
18.2 

17.1 
11.5 
10.9 
14.1 
14.2 
17.1 



Lbs. 



5.4 

3.8 



4.0 

3.2 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 



7.6 
7.4 
4.3 



6.7 











3.7 
3.6 


16.9 
10.2 


4.0 
4.0 


21.0 
15.7 



Laboratory Exercises 



393 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Barnyard millet 
Cat-tail millet 
Hungarian grass 
Wild oat grass 
Prairie grass . 

Buffalo grass . 
Gama grass 
Texas blue grass 
Guinea grass . 
Para grass . . 

Swamp grass . 
Salt marsh grass 
Buttercups 
Ox-eye daisy . 
Australian salt brush 

Red clover . . . 
Red clover in bloom 
Mammoth red clover 
Alsike clover . 
White clover . 

Crimson clover 
Japan clover . 
Sweet clover . 
Soybean . . 
Cowpea . . 
Alfalfa . . . 
Alfalfa leaves 
Bur clover . . 
Hairy (winter) vetch 
Serradella . . 
Peanut vine . 



Total 
Dry 

Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 

86.0 
89.0 
86.0 
85.7 
90.8 

85.0 

85:7 

85.7 



88.4 
89.6 
90.7 
89.7 
93.0 

84.7 
79.2 
78.8 
90.3 
90.3 

90.4 

89.0 
92.1 
88.2 
89.5 
91.9 
95.1 
91.0 
88.7 
90.8 
92.4 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

5.2 

7.2 
5.0 
2.9 
3.0 

3.0 
4.2 
5.1 
3.3 
5.5 

4.0 
3.1 

4.8 
3.7 

3.8 

7.1 

7.7 

6.2 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 

9.1 
11.9 
10.6 

9.2 
10.5 
16.8 

8.2 
11.9 
11.4 

6.7 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 

38.6 
41.6 
46.9 

48.7 
42.9 

42.0 
39.9 
36.3 
47.2 
45.6 

38.9 
39.7 
40.7 
41.0 

28.8 

37.8 
34.0 
34.7 
39.7 
42.2 

34.9 
37.7 
36.7 
40.9 
39.3 
40.5 
35.9 
39.0 
40.7 
38.6 
42.2 



Fat 



Lbs. 
0.8 

1.0 

1.1 

1.7 
1.6 

1.6 
0.9 
1.4 
0.5 
0.6 

0.7 
0.9 
1.8 
1.7 
0.7 

1.8 

2.8 
2.1 
1.1 
1.5 

1.2 
1.4 
0.5 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
1.3 
2.1 
1.6 
1.7 
3.0 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

16.9 
18.5 
12.1 

8.0 
9.9 

7.1 

11.8 

14.6 

8.8 

14.6 

11.5 
8.8 
15.9 
12.3 
18.6 

19.7 
19.9 
17.1 
20.5 
25.1 

24.3 
22.1 

28.8 
23.8 
14.3 
23.4 
37.3 
21.8 
27.2 
24.3 
17.1 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 
4.3 



4.3 



2.5 



4.4 
5.9 

5.5 



5.2 
5.0 

7.8 

4.0 
5.6 



5.2 
6.1 



9.7 
7.4 
3.2 



Potash 



Lbs. 

28.8 
15.4 



7.2 



12.5 
21.3 

18.7 



11.6 
13.9 
13.2 

13.1 



18.3 



14.7 
17.9 



24.4 
26.3 
11.6 



394 



Animal Husbandry 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Velvet bean .... 
Beggar weed .... 

Sanfoin 

Wheat and vetch . . 
Oat and pea .... 
Oat and vetch . . . 
Mixed grasses and clover 
Mixed rowen .... 

Straw and chaff 

Wheat 
Rye . 



Oat . 
Barley 
Millet 
Buckwheat 



Field bean 

Soybean 

Horse bean 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff . 

Flax shives 

Sorghum bagasse . . 

Fresh Green Roughage 
Green corn and sorghum forage 

Fodder corn, all varieties 
Dent varieties . . 
Dent, kernels glazed 
Flint varieties . . 
Flint, kernels glazed 
Sweet varieties . . 
Sweet corn, without ears 

Red kafir corn . . . 
White kafir corn . . 



Total 
Dry 

Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 
90.0 

90.8 

85.0 
85.0 
89.5 
85.0 
87.1 
83.4 



90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 
85.0 
90.1 

95.0 
89.9 
90.8 

85.7 
85.7 
90.0 
88.8 



20.7 
21.0 
26.6 
20.2 
22.9 
20.9 
20.0 

18.4 
16.6 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

9.6 

6.8 

10.4 

10.6 

7.6 

8.3 

5.8 
8.0 

0.8 
0.7 
1.3 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 

3.6 
2.3 
4.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.2 
0.5 



1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
1.1 
1.5 
1.2 
0.7 

0.8 
0.9 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 

52.5 

42.8 

36.5 
36.8 
41.5 
35.8 
41.8 
40.1 

35.2 
39.6 
39.5 
40.1 
34.3 
37.4 

39.7 
40.1 
39.5 
25.4 
33.0 
34.4 
52.2 



11.9 
12.2 
15.0 
11.4 
13.2 
12.6 
11.6 

9.7 
8.3 



Fat 



Lbs. 

1.4 
1.6 

2.0 
1.2 
1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 



1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.7 
1.0 
0.7 



0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.4 

0.4 
0.5 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

22.4 
18.9 

23.7 
23.2 
16.5 
20.5 
16.2 
18.6 

5.0 
5.0 
5.8 
7.0 
6.5 
8.0 



6.8 
14.1 
7.2 
6.4 
8.1 
5.5 



2.9 
2.7 
3.2 
3.2 
4.3 
3.4 
2.2 

2.9 
3.0 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 



5.0 



6.1 
6.0 



2.2 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 

1.8 
1.3 



1.3 
1.2 



2.5 


10.4 


3.8 
1.4 


8.2 
4.5 


1.1 


3.9 


1.3 


3.1 


1.4 


3.8 



Laboratory Exercises 



395 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Teosinte . . . 
Yellow milo maize 
Sorghum fodder . 
Sugar cane . . 

Fresh green grasses 

Pasture grass . . 
Kentucky blue grass 
Timothy . . . 
Orchard grass 
Red top, in bloom 

Wheat forage 

Rye forage . . 

Oat forage, stage uncertain 

Oat forage, in milk 

Oat forage, in bloom 

Barley forage . . 

Meadow fescue . 
Italian rye grass 
Tall oat grass 
Johnson grass 
Bermuda grass . 

Hungarian grass 
Japanese millet . 
Barnyard millet . 
Pearl millet . . 
Common millet . 
Hog millet 

Fresh green legumes, grasses and 
legumes combined 

Red clover 

Mammoth red clover . 



Total 
Dry 

Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 

9.9 

16.8 
20.6 
15.8 

20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 

22.7 
23.4 
25.0 

37.8 
25.0 
21.0 

30.1 
26.8 
30.5 
25.0 
28.3 

28.9 
25.0 
25.0 
18.5 
20.0 
20.0 



29.2 
20.0 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 
0.9 
1.1 

0.6 
0.5 

2.5 

2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 

1.7 
2.1 
2.6 
2.5 
1.1 
1.9 

1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
0.6 
1.3 

2.0 
1.1 
1.6 
0.6 
0.8 
0.8 



2.9 
2.0 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 
4.9 

9.3 

11.6 

9.5 

10.1 
19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
21.3 

12.0 
14.1 
11.0 

18.2 
12.4 
10.4 

18.6 
12.6 
15.7 
13.7 
13.4 

15.9 
13.6 
14.4 
10.0 
11.0 
10.8 



13.6 
9.1 



Fat 



Lbs. 

0.2 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

0.4 
0.4 
0.6 
1.0 
0.5 
0.3 

0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.4 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 



0.7 
0.2 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 
2.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.9 

5.6 
6.6 
5.0 
4.2 
4.5 

3.8 
4.2 
5.6 
5.4 
2.6 
4.3 

3.8 
5.0 
3.8 
1.9 
3.5 

5.0 
3.4 
3.8 
1.9 
2.4 
2.4 



7.0 

4.8 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 

0.6 
1.1 
0.7 
0.9 

2.6 



1.2 
2.0 
1.1 
1.5 
0.7 



1.5 



Potash 



Lbs. 

9.2 
5.7 
3.4 
4.4 

7.4 



2.6 
1.6 


7.6 
7.6 


1.6 
2.5 


6.0 
7.1 


1.3 


3.8 


2.9 


11.4 







4.2 
3.4 
5.8 
7.1 
4.7 



4.8 



396 



Animal Husbandry 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Fat 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro 
gen 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Alsike clover . . . 
Crimson clover . 
Sweet clover . . . 

Alfalfa 

Spring vetch . . . 
Cowpea .... 
Hairy vetch, winter 
Hairy vetch, in bloom 



Soybean 
Serradella . 
Horse bean 
Velvet bean 
Sanfoin 



Canada field pea . . . 
Canada field pea, in bud . 
Canada field pea, in bloom 
Canada field pea, in pod . 
Barley and vetch . . . 



Barley and peas . , 
Oats and peas . . , 
Oats and vetch . . , 
Wheat and vetch . , 
Mixed grass and clover 

Roots and Tubers 

Potato . . . 
Common beet 
Mangel 
Sugar beet 
Flat turnip 



Lbs. 

25.2 
19.1 
20.0 

28.2 
15.0 
16.4 
15.0 
18.0 

24.9 
20.5 
15.8 
17.8 
25.0 



15.3 
15.0 
13.0 
16.0 
20.0 

20.0 
20.3 
20.0 
20.0 
25.0 

20.9 
11.5 

9.1 
13.5 

9.9 



Lbs. 

2.6 
2.4 
2.5 

3.6 
1.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.5 

3.1 
2.1 
2.3 

2.7 
2.9 

1.8 
2.6 
2.3 
1.9 
2.1 

2.1 
1.8 
2.3 
2.6 
2.3 

1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 



Lbs. 

11.4 
9.1 

8.4 

12.1 
6.6 

8.7 
6.4 

7.7 

11.0 
8.9 
7.3 

8.4 
11.1 

6.9 
6.8 
5.3 
7.0 
6.5 

9.1 
10.2 
10.0 
10.3 
14.6 

15.7 

7.9 
5.5 
9.8 
6.4 



Lbs. 

0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.4 
0.2 
0.4 
0.5 

0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 



Lbs. 

6.2 
5.0 
6.1 

7.7 
4.3 
3.8 
5.8 
6.7 

6.4 
4.3 
4.5 
5.6 
7.0 

4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
3.7 
4.5 

4.5 
3.8 
4.8 
5.4 
4.6 

3.4 
2.4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 



Lbs. 
1.1 
1.2 
2.4 

1.3 
1.0 
1.3 
1.4 



1.4 
1.6 
0.5 



1.4 

1.6 
1.1 
1.1 
1.3 

2.0 



1.5 
1.4 



1.6 
0.8 
0.9 
0.8 
0.9 



Laboratory Exercises 



397 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Carrot . . 

Rutabaga . 
Parsnip 

Artichoke . 
Sweet potato 

Chufa . . 
Cassava 



Miscellaneous 

Acorns .... 
Apples .... 
Dwarf Essex rape 
Dwarf Essex rape, summer 

southern states 
Dwarf Essex rape, winter 

southern states . . 

Cabbage 

Sugar-beet leaves 
Field pumpkin 
Garden pumpkin . . 
Prickly pear .... 
Cane cacti .... 
Dried banana tops . . 

Dried banana butts 
Spurry . 
Prickly comfrey 
Purslane . . 
Dandelions 
Greasewood 
Common little sage 

Common sage 

Australian salt bush 

Dried oak leaves, gathered 

in July 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 

11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.5 
28.9 
20.5 
34.0 



44.7 

22.2 
14.3 

15.0 

15.0 
10.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
15.8 
21.5 



20.0 
13.0 
9.0 
15.6 
95.5 
65.0 



50.4 
22.0 

95.1 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 
0.8 
1.0 
1.1 

1.3 

0.8 
0.6 
0.8 

2.1 
0.8 
2.0 

1.9 

2.0 
2.3 
1.9 
1.0 
1.4 
0.4 
0.9 
4.4 

2.1 
1.5 
1.7 
2.0 
1.1 
10.9 
3.2 

1.2 

2.0 

3.2 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 

7.7 
8.1 
10.1 
14.7 
22.9 
9.1 
28.9 

34.4 
16.5 

8.2 

8.6 

8.1 
5.9 
5.0 
5.8 
8.3 
6.2 
11.1 
36.6 

37.1 
9.8 
5.1 
4.5 
7.5 
40.9 
19.7 

14.1 

8.5 

34.6 



Fat 



Lbs. 

0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 
5.6 
0.2 

1.7 

0.2 
0.2 

0.2 

0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 

0.4 
0.2 
0.4 

0.8 

0.9 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
2.0 
1.8 
0.9 

3.8 
0.3 

1.6 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

1.8 
1.9 
2.6 
4.2 
2.4 

2.0 

4.0 
1.2 
3.5 

3.4 

3.7 
4.2 
4.2 
2.1 
2.9 
1.1 
2.3 
21.1 

1.02 

3.8 
3.7 
3.7 
1.9 



21.9 

7.4 
4.4 

15.2 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 
0.9 

1.2 
2.0 
1.4 
0.8 



1.0 



0.1 
1.2 



1.1 
1.5 

1.6 
0.2 
0.6 



2.5 
1.2 



1.4 



Potash 



Lbs. 

2.6 
4.9 
4.4 
4.7 
3.7 

4.0 



1.7 
3.5 



4.3 

6.2 

0.9 
3.7 
3.5 



5.9 
7.6 



5.0 



398 



Animal Husbandry 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 

Continued 



Name of Feed 



Dried mixed tree leaves 
gathered in July . . . 

Dried beech twigs, gathered 
in winter 

Silage 

Corn, early analyses . . 
Corn, recent analyses . . 
Corn, ears removed . . 
Sorghum . . . 
MiUet .... 
Rye 

Red clover . . 
Canada field pea 
Soybean . . . 
Cowpea vine . . 
Brewers' grains . 
Apple pomace 

Corn cannery refuse, husk 
Corn cannery refuse, cobs 
Pea cannery refuse . . . 
Cowpea and soybean . . 
Corn and soybean . . . 
Barnyard millet and soy- 
bean 



Total 
Dry 
Mat- 
ter 

in 100 
Lbs. 



Lbs. 

84.0 

84.7 



20.9 
26.4 
26.3 
23.9 
26.0 
19.2 



28.0 
49.9 
25.8 
20.7 
29.7 
15.0 

16.2 
25.9 
23.2 
30.2 
24.0 

21.0 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lbs. 



Crude 
Protein 



Lbs. 

3.5 
0.9 



0.9 
1.4 
1.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.7 

1.5 
3.4 
2.7 
1.5 
4.6 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
2.1 
2.2 
1.6 

1.6 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 

30.4 
21.8 



11.4 
14.2 
14.9 
13.5 
13.1 
9.0 

9.2 
25.5 

9.6 

8.6 
11.5 

9.6 

10.1 
13.7 
13.1 
12.9 
13.2 

9.2 



Fat 



Lbs. 
1.1 

0.6 



0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
0.6 
0.2 

0.5 
1.0 
1.3 
0.9 
1.8 
0.5 

0.4 
0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.7 

0.7 



Fertilizing Constitu- 
ents in 1000 Lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Lbs. 

16.8 
6.4 



2.7 
4.3 
3.5 
1.3 

2.7 
3.8 

6.7 
9.4 
6.6 
4.3 
10.1 
1.9 

2.2 
2.4 
4.5 
6.1 
4.0 

4.5 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 



Lbs. 



1.1 
1.1 



1.5 
1.4 



1.6 
1.5 
4.2 
1.5 



Potash 



1.5 3.6 



1.1 



Lbs. 



3.7 
3.7 



1.9 
6.2 



7.5 
4.6 
0.5 
4.0 



4.4 



INDEX 



Abdallah, 12. 

Aberdeen Angus beef cattle, 123 ; com- 
pared with Shorthorn, 124 ; fam- 
ilies, 124. 

Adams, Seth, 200. 

Adelaide of Beechlands, 110. 

Age, of cattle, 130 ; of farm animals, 350 ; 
of fowls, 321 ; of horses, 34 ; of 
sheep, 223. 

Agricultural library, 381. 

Aguirre Merino, 200. 

Alfalfa for swine, 289. 

Amazonia, 12. 

American bacon, 282. 

American Merino fine-wool sheep, 199 
compared with Delaine Merino, 202 
compared with Rambouillet, 204 
description, 200; fleece, 200. 

American Saddle horse, 5, 10 ; com- 
pared with Thoroughbred, 11. 

American track records, 8. 

Andalusian fowl, 308. 

Andalusian Jack, 31. 

Anezah race, 9. 

Angora goat, 219; fleece, 220. 

Angus doddies, 124. 

Animals, age of, 350 ; habits of, 349. 

Anna, 120. 

Appenzell goat, 221. 

Arabian horse, 5, 9 ; compared with 
Thoroughbred, 10 ; pony, 30. 

Aralia DeKol, 113. 

Armsby, Dr., 64. 

Armsby's standard, 67 ; for beef cattle, 
129 ; for dairy cattle, 145 ; for the 
horse, 71. 

Ash, 56 ; function of, 58. 

Astley, Richard, 262. 

Atwood, Harvy, 265. 

Auchenbrain Favorite Beauty 5th, 117. 

Auchenbrain White Beauty 2d, 117. 

Ayrshire dairy cattle, 115; description, 
116; records, 117. 



Babcock test, for butter fat, 366 ; for 
cream, 366; for skimmed milk, 366. 

Baby-beef, 185 ; production, 185. 

Bacon, American, 282 ; English, 282. 

Bacon-hog, 259 ; feeding, 291 ; judging, 
281 ; sides, 281. 

Bakewell, Robert, 25, 214. 

Balanced ration, 65. 

Banostine Belle DeKol, 113. 

Bantam fowl, 316. 

Barley Harvester, 20. 

Barn, cow, 364 ; dairy, 166 ; horse, 357 ; 
sheep, 253, 374; silo, 170; swine, 
299. 

Baron of Buchlyvie, 24. 

Baron's Pride, 24. 

Bates families of Shorthorns, 120. 

Bates, Thomas, 120. 

Beach, Munson, 261. 

Beauty of Park Farm, 115. 

Bedding, the horse, 86 ; for sheep, 255. 

Bedouin tribes, 9. 

Beef, baby-, 185 ; cuts of, 143 ; food re- 
quired for, 178. 

Beef cattle, 119, 142; Aberdeen Angus, 
123 ; Aberdeen Angus compared with 
Shorthorn, 124 ; Angus families, 124 ; 
age to feed, 175 ; baby-beef, 185 ; 
breeding, 188 ; Butcher stock, 142 ; 
care and management, 188 ; condi- 
tion, 139 ; cooperative grading-up, 
188 ; cutters and canners, 142 ; 
detail characteristics, 140 ; fat steer, 
141; feeding calf, 152; form, 139; 
form of feeder, 176 ; Galloway, 125 ; 
Galloway compared with Shorthorn, 
126 ; general characteristics, 139 ; 
grain on pasture, 181 ; Hereford, 
121 ; Hereford compared with Short- 
horn, 122 ; how to turn to pasture, 
181 ; influence of age, 175 ; judging, 
137 ; market classes, 141 ; measure- 
ments, 133 ; method of summer 



399 



400 



Index 



feeding, 180 ; milkers and springers, 
142 ; minor breeds, 126 ; quality, 
139 ; roughage increases capacity, 
180; salt, 190; sample rations, 185; 
score card, 137 ; self-feeder, 190 ; 
shade, 190 ; shelter, 191 ; Shorthorn, 
119; stockers and feeders, 142; 
Texas and western range cattle, 142 ; 
uniformity, 140 ; veal calves, 143 ; 
water, 190 ; winter equipment, 191 ; 
winter feeding, 179-183. 

Beef cow, points of, 106. 

Beef type, 107. 

Belgian draft horse, 26 ; compared with 
Percheron, 27. 

Belle Netherland Johanna, 113. 

Bellfounder, 12. 

Belmont Park course, 8. 

Berkshire lard-hog, 260, 262; com- 
pared with Poland China, 263. 

Berry, William, 202. 

Big China hog, 261. 

Bit, 97 ; uses, 93. 

Bitting, harness, 94 ; the colt, 94. 

Blackbird family, 124. 

Blackfaced Highland, 214, 218. 

Black Suffolk swine, 267. 

Black Top Spanish Delaine, 201. 

Black tribe, 28. 

Blankets, 86. 

Blind horse, 38. 

Boar, see Swine. 

Booth families of Shorthorns, 120. 

Booth, Thomas, 120. 

Boulonnais horse, 23. 

Bracelet, 120. 

Brahma fowl, 310. 

Breeding, cattle, 165, 188; horses, 82; 
poultry, 337 ; sheep, 246 ; swine, 
296. 

Breeds, of cattle, 105 ; of coach horses, 
14 ; of draft horses, 20 ; of donkeys, 
31; of horses, 3; of ponies, 29; of 
poultry, 307; of sheep, 197; of 
swine, 259. 

Breton horse, 23. 

Bridle-bit, uses, 93. 

Brittany cattle, 114. 

Broadhook, 120. 

Broilers, 334. 



Brooders, 340. 

Brood mare, feeding, 76. 

Buchan humlies, 124. 

Bull, see Cattle. 

Butcher hogs, 282. 

Butcher stock, 142. 

Butter making, starter, 369. 

Byerly Turk, 5. 

Byfield hog, 261. 

Calf, 152 ; feeding, 152 ; on skim milk, 
153 ; ration, 155 ; removing horns, 
153 ; veal, 143 ; see Cattle. 

Cambridge Rose, 120. 

Canada Experiment Station addresses, 
383. 

Captain Byerly, 5. 

Carbohydrates, 57 ; function of, 59. 

Carcass, weight by measurements, 372. 

Cart Horse, 25. 

Cart, training, 96. 

Catalonian Jack, 31. 

Cattle, 105; Aberdeen Angus, 123; 
age of, 130 ; age by horns, 131 ; 
Ayrshire, 115; Ayrshire records, 
117; baby-beef, 185; beef breeds, 
119 ; beef type, 107 ; breeds of, 105 ; 
Brown Swiss, 118; care, 188; care 
and management, 157 ; dairy score 
card, 131 ; dairy type, 105 ; de- 
scription of Ayrshires, 116; descrip- 
tion of Guernseys, 114; descrip- 
tion of Holstein-Friesians, 112; de- 
scription of Jerseys, 110; description 
of Shorthorn, 121; Devon, 127; 
disease, 171; Dutch Belted, 118; 
feeding beef, 175 ; feeding calf, 152 ; 
feeding dairy, 144 ; French Cana- 
dian, 118; Galloway, 125 ; Guernsey, 
113; Guernsey records, 115; Here- 
ford, 121 ; habits of, 349 ; Holstein- 
Friesian, 111 ; Holstein-Friesian 
records, 113 ; how to turn to pasture, 
181 ; Jersey, 108 ; Jersey milk rec- 
ords, 111; Jersey records, 110; 
judging, 130; Kerry, 119; major 
dairy breeds, 108 ; measurements, 
133; Polled Durham, 126; Red 
Polled, 128 ; removing horns, 153, 
364 ; sample rations, 154 ; Shorthorn, 



Index 



401 



119 ; silage, 151 ; soiling, 149 ; Sussex, 
128; teeth, 130; tuberculosis, 172; 
udder, 136; West Highland, 128; 
watering dairy cow, 147. 

Cement floors, 169. 

Charles II, 5. 

Charles Kent mare, 12. 

Check-rein, 98. 

Cheese making, cottage, 371. 

Cherry Blossom, 120. 

Cheshire swine, 268; description, 269. 

Chester White lard-hog, 260, 265; 
compared with Poland China, 266. 

Cheviot sheep, 213 ; compared with 
Southdown, 213; weight, 204. 

Chickens, amount to feed, 329 ; young 
feeding, 328 ; see Poultry. 

Chinese hog, 262. 

Cholera in swine, 302 ; prevention, 302. 

Clark, A. C, 269. 

Clay family of horses, 12. 

Clay, Henry, 263. 

Cleveland Bay Coach horse, 15, 20 ; 
compared with the Hackney, 20. 

Clipping the horse, 85. 

Clydesdale draft horse, 23 ; compared 
with Percheron, 25. 

Coach horse, breeds of, 14 ; Cleveland 
Bay, 20 ; French Coach, 16 ; German 
Coach, 18 ; Hackney, 14. 

Cochin fowl, 310. 

Cock, see Poultry. 

Colantha 4th's Johanna, 112-113. 

Collar, fitting, 99 ; humane, 100 ; leather, 
100 ; pneumatic, 100 ; sweeney, 100. 

Colling Bros., 120. 

Collings, Robert, 267. 

Colt, bitting, 94 ; harnessing, 95 ; train- 
ing, 90 ; see Horse. 

Confidence, 15. 

Cost of ration, 75. 

Cotswold long-wool sheep, 215 ; com- 
pared with Leicester, 216 ; fleece, 
201. 

Count Johanna, 18. 

Cow, dairy points of, 104. 

Creamelle Vale, 113. 

Crisp Horse, 28. 

Crisp, Mr., 28. 

Crude fiber, 57. 

2d 



Cruickshank, Amos, 120. 

Cruickshank families of Shorthorns, 120. 

Crupper, 100. 

Cunningham cattle, 116. 

Curb, 40. 

Curtis, F. D., 264, 270. 

Curtis Victoria swine, 270. 

Cutters and canners, 142. 

Dairy barn, 166 ; silo, 170 ; ventilation, 
167. 

Dairy cattle, Ayrshire, 115; barn, 166; 
care and management, 157 ; con- 
stitution, 134 ; breeding and per- 
formance, 165 ; detail characteris- 
tics, 135 ; feeding, 144 ; feeding calf, 
152 ; feeding the milking cow, 148 ; 
feeding standards, 144 ; food re- 
quirements for milk, 145 ; forming 
herd, 165; general characteristics, 
133; Guernsey, 113; Holstein- 
Friesian, 111 ; inspection of Jersey, 
109; Jersey, 108; judging, 131; 
measurements, 133 ; milk records, 
160 ; milk signs, 137 ; milk veins, 
137 ; milking, 158 ; minor breeds, 
118 ; ration for, 363 ; sample rations, 
154 ; score card, 131 ; silage, 151 ; 
soiling, 149 ; summer feeding, 148 ; 
temperament, 135 ; udder, 136 ; unit 
of improvement, 165 ; veal calves, 
143 ; watering, 147 ; winter feeding, 
150. 

Dairy cow, form, 133 ; measuring, 363 ; 
points of, 104 ; quality, 134 ; scor- 
ing, 363. 

Dairy herd, formation, 165. 

Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, 115. 

Dairy type, 105. 

Daisy Grace DeKol, 113. 

Dan Patch, 14. 

Dark Horse, 20. 

Darley Arabian, 5. 

Darley, Mr., 5. 

Davis Victoria swine, 220. 

Daytholeum, 249. 

Delaine Merino fine-wool sheep, 201 ; 
Black Top Spanish, 201 ; compared 
with American Merino, 202 ; Dick- 
inson, 201 ; National, 201. 



402 



Index 



Demi-Sang, 16. 

Devon cattle, 127. 

Dexter-Kerry, 119. 

Dickinson Delaine, 201. 

Dickinson, W. R., 201. 

Digestible nutrients, 62. 

Digestion, 60 ; coefficient of, 62. 

Digestive organs, 61. 

Dipping, sheep, 248 ; swine, 298. 

Disease, of cattle, 171 ; of swine, 301 ; 
tuberculosis, 172. 

Docking lambs, 251. 

Dolly Bloom, 115. 

Dolly Dimple, 114, 115. 

Dominique fowl, 314. 

Donkeys, breeds, 31. 

Dorking fowl, 314. 

Dorset-Horn mutton sheep, 212 ; com- 
pared with Southdown, 212. 

Down-Cotswold sheep, 209. 

Draft breeds of horses, 20. 

Draft horse, Belgian, 26 ; Clydesdale, 
23 ; French draft, 23 ; Percheron, 21 ; 
Shire, 25 ; weight, 50. 

Drake, see Ducks. 

Druce, Samuel, 209. 

Duchess, 120. 

Ducks, 317. 

Dunlop cattle, 116. 

Dunlop, John, 116. 

Durham Ox, 120. 

Duroc hog, 264. 

Duroc-Jersey lard-hog, 260, 263 ; com- 
pared with Poland China, 264. 

East Friesland horse, 18. 

East Prussian horse, 18. 

Eclipse, 5. 

Egg production, amount to feed, 332 ; 
breeds described, 308 ; production 
feeding, 330 ; mineral matter, 332 ; 
type, 307. 

Egg study, 378 ; "chalaza, 378 ; composi- 
tion, 380 ; preserving, 381 ; struc- 
ture, 378. 

Egg-tester, 378. 

Ellman, John, 205. 

English bacon, 282. 

English track records, 8. 

Epsom Derby course, 6 ; track record, 8. 



Epsom Oaks course, 6 ; track record, 8. 

Ericas, 124. 

Escurial Merino, 200. 

Essex lard-hog, 260, 267; compared 

with Poland China, 267. 
Estantes sheep, 199. 
Ether extract, 58. 
Ewe, see Sheep. 
Experiment station addresses, 382. 

Fairholme, 120. 

Farm animals, registration, 84. 

Farmer's Glory, 20. 

Farm teams, sample rations, 79. 

Farms for beef production, 189. 

Fat, 58 ; function of, 59. 

Fat-steer, 141. 

Fattening swine, 289. 

Feed, digestible nutrients, 387; energy 
values, 385 ; hays, 358 ; measure- 
ment of, 384 ; mixing, 357 ; succulent, 
151 ; weight of, 384. 

Feed-bunk, 189. 

Feeders, 139 ; condition, 176 ; form of, 
176 ; quality, 177 ; and stockers, 
142 ; uniformity, 140 ; wintering, 
179. 

Feed-hoppers for poultry, 377. 

Feeding, bacon-hog, 291 ; beef cattle, 
175 ; for beef in summer, 179 ; breed- 
ing swine, 287 ; the brood mare, 76 ; 
calf, 152 ; dairy cattle, 144 ; the 
foal, 76 ; egg production, 330 ; green 
food for poultry, 328 ; the horse, 71 ; 
lambs, 239; lard-hog, 289; meat 
scrap for poultry, 327 ; the milking 
cow, 148 ; mules, 75 ; pigs, 286 ; 
poultry, 327 ; poultry for meat 
production, 333 ; principles, 54 ; 
regularity for the horse, 72 ; sheep, 
232; sick horse, 89; soiling, 149; 
standards, 64 ; standards, dairy 
cattle, 144 ; swine, 284 ; variety 
for poultry, 330 ; work horse, 73 ; 
work-horse, method of, 74; young 
chickens, 328. 

Feed-lot, 191. 

Feed-racks for sheep, 255. 

Feet, care of, 87, 237. 

Filly, see Horse. 



Index 



403 



Financial Countess, 110. 

Fine-wool sheep, American Merino, 199 ; 
Delaine Merino, 201 ; Rambouillet, 
203 ; type, 198. 

Fireaways, 15. 

Fisherman, 14. 

Fistula?, 39. 

Fleece, American Merino, 200; Hamp- 
shire, 201 ; Leicester, 201 ; Lincoln, 
201 ; Oxford, 201 ; Southdown, 201. 

Floors, cement, 169 ; for poultry house, 
345. 

Fly-nets, 101. 

Foal, feeding, 76 ; weaning, 78 ; see 
Horses. 

Foggathorpe, 120. 

Food, 54 ; amount for the horse, 73 ; 
ash, 56 ; carbohydrates, 57 ; com- 
position, 55 ; cooking, 286 ; crude 
fiber, 57 ; digestible nutrients, 62 ; 
digestibility, 60 ; digestibility of, 
63 ; effect on milk, 145 ; ether ex- 
tract, 58 ; for beef production, 178 ; 
for ration, 359 ; for swine, 285 ; fat, 
58 ; function of, 58 ; function of 
carbohydrates, 59 ; function of fat, 
59 ; function of protein, 59 ; grind- 
ing, 285 ; high protein group, 361 ; 
low protein group, 360 ; medium 
protein group, 360 ; milk and flavor, 
146 ; nitrogen-free extract, 57 ; order 
of supplying to dairy cow, 146 ; 
order of supplying for the horse, 72 ; 
preparation for swine, 285 ; protein, 
56 ; ration, 63 ; requirements for 
milk, 145; requirements for sheep, 
233 ; requirements for work, 71 ; 
roughage, 361; soaking, 285; use, 
54 ; water, 55. 

Forage-rack, 192. 

Fowls, see Poultry. 

French Coach horse, 15, 16 ; compared 
with the Hackney, 18. 

French draft horse, 23. 

French horse classes, 17. 

Friesland cattle, 111. 

Frizzle fowl, 316. 

Gaited Saddle horse, 11. 
Gaits of Saddle horse, 11. 



Galliers, William, 122. 

Gallipoli, 21. 

Galloway beef cattle, 125 ; compared 
with Shorthorn, 126. 

Game fowl, 316. 

Gander, see Geese. 

Geese, 319. 

Gelding, see Horses. 

German Coach horse, 15, 18. 

Gerranton Dora 2d, 117. 

Giant Lincolnshire Horse, 25. 

Gilbert, M., 203. 

Gilt, see Swine. 

Glenanaar of the Glen, 115. 

Goats, 219; Angora, 219; milk, 220. 

Gobbler, see Turkey. 

Godolphin, 21 ; Barb, 5. 

Goose, see Geese. 

Grain, for calf, 155 ; for foal, 77 ; meas- 
uring, 361. 

Grant, G. M., 124. 

Gravesend course, 8. 

Great Horse, 25. 

Grit for poultry, 327. 

Grooming the horse, 85. 

Guernsey dairy cattle, 113; description, 
114; records, 115. 

Guinea-fowls, 319. 

Guinea hog, 263. 

Hackney Coach horse, 14, 15; com- 
pared with Cleveland Bay, 20 ; with 
French Coach, 18 ; with German 
Coach, 18 ; description, 15 ; pony, 
30. 

Hadban, 9. 

Haecker's standard for dairy cattle, 
145. 

Hal family, 12. 

Halter rope, 354. 

Hambletonian 10, 12 ; family, 12 ; 
Rysdyks, 12 ; pedigree, 12. 

Hamburg fowl, 308. 

Hampshire lard-hog, 266 ; compared 
with Poland China, 267. 

Hampshire mutton sheep, 208 ; com- 
pared with Southdown, 209 ; fleece, 
201. 

Hanoverian horse, 18. 

Harlem Park course, 8. 



404 



Index 



Harness, 97 ; bitting, 94 ; caring for, 
101 ; fitting the collar, 99 ; fly-nets, 
101 ; parts of, 351 ; rope halter, 352 ; 
splicing rope, 352. 

Harnessing the colt, 95. 

Hays, 358 ; measuring, 362. 

Hazel of Sand Hill, 117. 

Heather Blooms, 124. 

Heifer, see Cattle. 

Hen, see Poultry. 

Hereford beef cattle, 121 ; compared 
with Shorthorn, 122. 

Herod, 5. 

Hewer, John, 122. 

Hewer, William, 262. 

High-lawn Hartog DeKol, 113. 

Hinny, 32 ; see Mule. 

Hobbs, Fisher, 267. 

Hog, see Swine. 

Hog cholera, 302. 

Hog-house, 299. 

Hog lot, 301. 

Hog- wallows, 301. 

Holderness cattle, 119. 

Holstein cattle, 111. 

Holstein-Friesian dairy cattle, 111 ; de- 
scription, 112; records, 113. 

Holstein horse, 18. 

Homdani, 9. 

Hoof, growth of, 88 ; unsound, 39. 

Horned-Dorset, 212. 

Horns, removing, 153 ; 364 ; in estimat- 
ing age of cattle, 131. 

Horses, 2 ; action, 45 ; age estimating, 
34; barn, 357; bedding, 86; blan- 
kets, 86 ; breeds of, 3 ; care, 81 ; 
care of feet, 87; care of teeth, 85; 
characters, 47, 50 ; clipping, 85 ; 
cost of ration, 75 ; curb, 40 ; de- 
fective hearing, 39 ; feeding, 71 ; 
feeding the brood mare, 76 ; feeding 
foal, 76 ; feeding sick, 89 ; fistulae, 
39 ; food required for work, 71 ; 
forging, 40 ; form, 45 ; grooming, 85 ; 
habits of, 349 ; heavy type, 4 ; 
height, 44 ; impaired vision, 38 ; 
judging, 34 ; light breeds, 4 ; meas- 
urements of, 44, 350 ; order of sup- 
plying food, 72 ; overreaching, 
40; points of, 2, 47-50; poll- 



evil, 39 ; quality, 46 ; ration, 
68, 361 ; regularity in feeding, 
72; ring-bone, 39; salt for, 72; 
sample rations, 79 ; side-bone, 39 ; 
the score-card, 40 ; scoring, 350 ; 
scratches, 39 ; shoeing, 88 ; sound- 
ness, 351 ; spavin, 40 ; splint, 39 ; 
sweeney shoulder, 39 ; teeth, 36 ; 
temperament, 47 ; Thoroughbred, 
4 ; thoroughpin, 40 ; treating sick, 
89 ; types of, 3 ; unsound, 38 ; un- 
sound hoof, 39 ; watering, 72 ; 
weight, 350. 

Horse-breeding, 82 ; cooperative, 82 ; 
soundness, 84 ; uniformity, 84. 

Hot-house lambs, 238 ; winter quarters, 
238. 

Houdan fowl, 314. 

House poultry, 340. 

Hubback, 120. 

Humane collar, 100. 

Humphrey, David, 202. 

Humphrey, William, 209. 

Imp. Beauty of Park Farm, 115. 
Imp. Princess of the Blicqs, 115. 
Incubation, 338 ; artificial, 339 ; nat- 
ural, 338. 
Incubators, 339. 
Indian pony, 31. 
Indiana Victoria swine, 270. 
Infantado Merino, 200. 
Irish Grazier, 261. 
Isabella, 120. 
Italian Jack, 31. 

Jacks, breeds, 31. 

Jacoba Irene, 110. 

Jarvis, William, 200. 

Java fowl, 314. 

Jean Armour, 117. 

Jeffries, James, 265. 

Jeffries, Thomas, 122. 

Jelfon, 9. 

Jersey dairy cattle, 108 ; butter-fat 
records, 111; description, 110; in- 
spection, 109; records, 110. 

Jersey-Red hog, 263. 

Judging, cattle, 130; horses, 34; poul- 
try, 321 ; sheep, 222 ; swine, 275. 



Index 



405 



Keheilet Ajug, 9. 
Kellner, Dr., 64. 
Kentucky Saddle horse, 11. 
King's system of ventilation, 167. 
Kiihn, Dr., 64. 

Lamb, cuts of, 230 ; docking, 251 ; 
fall, 241; feeding, 239; hot-house, 
238; spring, 239; winter, 238; see 
Sheep. 

Lancaster, 120. 

Langshan, 310. 

Langwater Hope, 115. 

Lard-hog, 259 ; feeding, 289 ; form, 
275; hams, 280; judging, 275; 
weight and condition, 275. 

Large Yorkshire bacon-hog, 271 ; de- 
scription, 272. 

Large White swine, 271. 

Lass 38th of Hood Farm, 110. 

Lavender, 120. 

Leghorn fowl, 308. 

Leicester long-wool sheep, 214 ; com- 
pared with Cotswold, 216; with 
Lincoln, 217 ; description, 214 ; 
fleece, 201. 

Library, 381. 

Lice, killing materials, 375. 

Lily of Willowmoor, 117. 

Lincoln long-wool sheep, 217 ; compared 
with Leicester, 217; fleece, 201. 

Lintock, 24. 

Livingston, Robert, 200. 

Loin hitch, 92. 

Long-wool sheep, 214 ; Cotswold, 215 ; 
Leicester, 214; Lincoln, 217. 

Lord Barrington, 262. 

Lord Selkirk, 126. 

Lord Western, 267. 

McCombie, William, 124. 
McDowell, James, 201. 
Major Delmar, 14. 
Majorca Jack, 31. 
Mambrino, 12; family, 12. 
Maltese goat, 221. 
Maltese Jack, 31. 
Maneghi, 9. 
Mare, see Horse. 
Mares, Royal, 5. 



Market classes, of beef cattle, 141 ; of 
horses, 51, 52; of sheep, 230; of 
swine, 281. 

Martin Boxer tribe, 28. 

Mason, Charles, 267. 

Matchem, 5. 

Matie of Sand Hill, 117. 

Mead, R. M., 201. 

Measurements of horses, 44. 

Meat, cuts of, 372 ; breeds of fowls 
described, 310 ; type of poultry, 
307. 

Medora, 120. 

Meire, Samuel, 206. 

Merino sheep, 199. 

Messenger, 11. 

Mexican pony, 31. 

Middle Yorkshire hog, 268, 270. 

Milk, analysis, 365 ; ash, 365 ; bacteria, 
369 ; cost of, 364 ; effect of food on 
composition, 145 ; food requirements 
for, 145 ; food and flavor, 146 ; for 
calf, 153 ; goat, 220 ; keeping quali- 
ties, 367 ; oil, 249 ; pasteurization, 
368 ; per cent of fat, 366 ; records 
value of, 161 ; sampling, 162 ; sani- 
tary, 157 ; utensils, 158. 

Milk-bottles, 162. 

Milkers and springers, 142. 

Milk-house, 158. 

Milking, 158 ; machines, 159. 

Milk-records, 160 ; keeping, 160. 

Milk-signs, 137. 

Milk-testing, 161 ; associations, 164 ; 
apparatus, 163. 

Milk-veins, 137. 

Mimulus, 120. 

Minorca fowl, 308. 

Morgan horse, 5 ; family, 12. 

Morris Park course, 8. 

Moss Rose, 120. 

Mule, 32 ; feeding, 75. 

Mutton, cuts of, 230. 

Mutton sheep, 204, 214 ; Cotswold, 215 ; 
description of Southdown, 206 ; Dor- 
set Horned, 212; Hampshire, 208 
Lincoln, 217; Oxford Down, 209 
Shropshire, 206; Southdown, 204 
Suffolk, 210. 

Mutton type, 198. 



406 



Index 



Naptholeum, 249. 
National Delaine, 201. 
Neapolitan hog, 262. 
Neff, William, 261. 
Negrette Merino, 200. 
Netherhall Brownie 9th, 117. 
New York Victoria swine, 270. 
Nitrogen-free extract, 57. 
Nivernais horse, 23. 
Nonpareil, 120. 
Norfolk Thin Rind hog, 265. 
Normandy cattle, 114. 
Nosegay, 124. 
Nubian goat, 221. 
Nutrients, 62 ; digestible, 387. 
Nutritive-ratio, 65, 359 ; for poultry, 
328. 

Ohio Improved Chester White, 266. 

Oldenburg horse, 18. 

Old English Black Horse, 25. 

Old Grannie, 124. 

Olga 4th's Pride, 110. 

One Eye, 12. 

One Thousand Guineas course, 6. 

Orange Blossom, 120. 

Oriental Game fowl, 316. 

Original Chester White hog, 265. 

Original Shales, 15. 

Orloff Trotter, 5. 

Ornamental breeds of fowls, 308; de- 
scribed, 316. 

Orpington fowl, 314. 

Oxford, 120. 

Oxford Down mutton sheep, 209 ; com- 
pared with Southdown, 210; fleece, 
201. 

Pacer, 11. 

Pacing records, 14. 

Packing hogs, 282. 

Pasteurization of milk, 368. 

Pasture, 182 ; for beef, 189 ; for sheep, 

234 ; for swine, 287. 
Paular Merino, 200. 
Pearly Exile of St. Lambert, 110. 
Percheron draft horse, 21 ; description, 

22 ; compared with Belgian, 27 ; 

with Clydesdale, 25 ; with Shire, 

25; with Suffolk, 28. 



Picardy horse, 23. 

Picotee, 120. 

Pig weaning, 287; feeding, 286; see 
Swine. 

Plymouth Rock fowl, 314. 

Pneumatic collar, 100. 

Points, of the beef cow, 106 ; dairy cow, 
104; fowl, 306; horse, 2; pig, 258; 
sheep, 196. 

Poitou, 31. 

Poland China lard-hog, 260; descrip- 
tion, 261. 

Polish fowl, 316. 

Polled Durham cattle, 126. 

Poll-evil, 39. 

Pony, Arabian, 30 ; breeds, 29 ; Hackney, 
30 ; Indian, 31 ; Mexican, 31 ; Shet- 
land, 30 ; Welsh, 30. 

Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d, 113. 

Pork, cuts of, 282. 

Poultry, 307; age, 374; Andalusian, 
308; Bantam, 316; Brahma, 310; 
breeding, 337 ; broilers, 334 ; brooders, 
340; care, 337; Cochin, 310; Colony 
house, 341 ; comb, 324 ; comparative 
judging, 322; coop, 376; detail char- 
acters of fowls, 324 ; Dominique, 314 ; 
Dorking, 314; ducks, 317; egg 
production, 330 ; estimating age, 
321; exercise, 330; feeding, 327; 
feeding for meat production, 333 ; 
feeding young chickens, 329 ; feed 
hopper, 346, 377; frizzle, 316; 
game, 316 ; general purpose breeds 
described, 314 ; geese, 319 ; grit and 
mineral matter, 327 ; guinea fowls, 
319; Hamburg, 308; houses, 340; 
house, 376 ; Houdan, 314 ; improve- 
ment, 337 ; incubation, 338 ; in- 
cubators, 339; Java, 314; judging, 
321 ; Langshan, 310 ; Leghorn, 308 ; 
lice-killing materials, 375 ; long 
house, 341 ; management, 337 ; meat 
breeds described, 310 ; Minorca, 
308 ; nutritive ratio, 328 ; old, 321 
ornamental breeds described, 316 
Oriental Game, 316 ; Orpington, 314 
parks, 346; Plymouth Rock, 314 
points of the fowl, 306; Polish, 316 
ranges, 346 ; Red Cap, 308 ; Rhode 



Index 



407 



Island Red, 314; roasters, 334; 
sample rations, 334 ; sex, 374 ; score- 
card, 323 ; score-card judging, 322 ; 
scratching-shed, 343 ; Silkies, 316 ; 
sorting uneven flocks, 330 ; Spanish, 
308; Sultan, 316; symmetry, 324; 
turkey, 317; types of, 307, 374; 
vitality, 374 ; wattles and ear lobes, 
324 ; weight, 324 ; wings, 326 ; Wy- 
andotte, 314 ; yards, parks, and ranges, 
346; young, 321. 

Poultry house, floors, 345 ; labor-saving 
appliances, 345 ; size, 341 ; windows, 
344. 

Price, John, 122. 

Prides, 124. 

Princess of the Blicqs, 115. 

Productive ration, 63-64. 

Protein, 56 ; function of, 59. 

Pullet, see Poultry. 

Pumpkins for swine, 288. 

Quality in beef cattle, 139; in dairy cattle, 

134 ; in hogs, 277 ; in sheep, 225. 
Quarantine lot for swine, 302. 
Queens, 124. 

Races, running, 6. 

Ram, see Sheep. 

Rambouillet fine-wool sheep, 203 ; com- 
pared with American Merino, 204. 

Ranges for poultry, 346. 

Ratio, nutritive, 359. 

Ration, 63 ; Armsby's method, 67 ; for 
calf, 154 ; for beef production, 186 ; 
for dairy cow, 154, 363 ; balanced, 
65 ; computing, 65 ; cost of, for horse, 
75 ; food for, 359 ; forming, 359 ; for 
horse, 68, 361 ; individual, 73 ; main- 
tenance, 63 ; sample for the horse, 
78 ; sample for poultry, 334 ; sample 
for sheep, 244 ; for swine, 292 ; pro- 
ductive, 63-64 ; for sheep, 373 ; Wolf- 
Lehman method, 66. 

Records, of Ayrshire cattle, 117 ; Guern- 
sey cattle, 115; Holstein-Freisian 
cattle, 113; Jersey cattle, 110. 

Red Cap fowl, 308. 

Red Polled cattle, 128. 

Reed, Alexander. 201. 



Registration of farm animals, 84. 

Rena Ross, 117. 

Rhode Island Red fowl, 314. 

Ring-bone, 39. 

Roasters, 334. 

Rooster, see Poultry. 

Roots for swine, 288 ; and tubers, 
152. 

Rope, halter, 354 ; splicing, 352 ; whip- 
ping end, 357. 

Rosaire's Olga 4th's Pride, 110. 

Royal Mares, 5. 

Russian hog, 261. 

Rysdyks Hambletonian, 12. 

Saanen goat, 221. 

Saddle horse compared with Thorough- 
bred, 11; gaited, 11; gaits, 11. 

Salt, 190 ; for the horse, 72. 

Sanitary milk, 157. 

Santa Anita course, 8. 

Saratoga course, 8. 

Schales, 15. 

Schwargthal goat, 221. 

Score-card, beef cattle, 137 ; dairy 
cattle, 131; horse, 40; method of 
using, 40 ; poultry, 323 ; sheep, 223 ; 
swine, 275. 

Scoring, rules of, 41. 

Scratches, 39. 

Secret, 120. 

Self-feeder, 190. 

Seymour, Richard, 212. 

Shadingfield tribe, 28. 

Shales, 15. 

Shammar race, 9. 

Shearing sheep, 250 ; hand, 250 ; ma- 
chine, 251. 

Sheep, 197 ; American Merino, 199 ; 
barns, 253, 374; bedding, 238, 255; 
Blackfaced Highland, 218; breed- 
ing, 246 ; breeds of, 197 ; care, 246 ; 
care of feet, 237 ; changing pasture, 
235 ; class A, B, and C, 198 ; cheviot, 
213 ; constitutional vigor, 226 ; Cots- 
wold, 215; cuts of mutton, 230; 
detail characters, 226 ; description 
of American Merino, 200, dipping, 
248 ; dips, 249 ; docking lambs, 
251 ; Dorset-Horned, 212 ; estima- 



408 



Index 



tion of age, 223 ; examination of 
fleece, 229 ; exercise, 237 ; fattening, 
238 ; fine- wool type, 198 ; feeding, 
232 ; feed-racks, 255 ; food require- 
ments, 233 ; general appearance, 
223; habits of, 349; Hampshire, 
208 ; hot-house lambs, 237 ; improve- 
ments, 246 ; judging, 222 ; Leicester, 
214 ; Lincoln, 217 ; market classes, 
230; method of catching, 222; 
method of holding, 222 ; mutton 
type, 198; mutton, 204; Oxford 
Down, 209 ; pasture, 234 ; points of, 
196; quality, 225; Rambouillet, 
203 ; ration, 373 ; sample rations, 
243 ; score-card, 223 ; shade for, 
236 ; shearing, 250 ; Shropshire, 206 ; 
Southdown, 204 ; sown pasture, 236 ; 
Suffolk Down, 210 ; summer feed- 
ing, 234 ; tying wool, 251 ; uniform- 
ity, 226, 247; vigor, 226; weight 
and condition, 225 ; winter feeding, 
237. 

Sheepshead Bay course, 8. 

Shetland pony, 30. 

Shields, 15. 

Shire draft horse 
Percheron, 25. 

Shoat, see Swine. 

Shoeing the horse, 88. 

Shorthorn beef cattle, 



25 ; compared with 



119 



compared 
with Aberdeen Angus, 124 ; with 
Galloway, 126 ; with Hereford, 122 ; 
description, 121 ; families, 120. 

Shoulder, sweeney, 39. 

Shropshire mutton sheep, 206 ; com- 
pared with Southdown, 207. 

Siamese hog, 262. 

Side-bone, 39. 

Silage, 151 ; measuring, 362. 

Silkies fowls, 316. 

Silo, 170; filling, 171. 

Silver, L. B., 266. 

Skimmed milk, test, 366 ; for calf, 153 ; 
for swine, 289. 

Small Black swine, 267. 

Small White swine, 267. 

Small Yorkshire lard-hog, 267. 

Soiling, 149 ; for swine, 287. 

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm, 110. 



Soundness, in horse breeding, 84 ; in 
horses, 351. 

Southdown mutton sheep, 204 ; com- 
pared with Cheviot, 213, with Dor- 
set-Horned, 212, with Hampshire, 
209, with Oxford Down, 210, with 
Shropshire, 207, with Suffolk Down, 
211; description, 206; fleece, 201. 

Sow, see Swine. 

Spanish fowl, 308. 

Spanish hog, 263. 

Spavin, 40. 

Splint, 39. 

Spotswood Daisy Pearl, 115. 

Spring lambs, 239. 

Springers and milkers, 142. ' 

Squashes for swine, 288. 

Stables for sanitary milk, 157. 

Stallion, see Horses. 

Standardbred horse, 11 ; compared with 
Thoroughbred, 12 ; families, 12. 

Steer, 141 ; see Beef cattle. 

St. Leger course, 6 ; track record, 8. 

Stockers and feeders, 142. 

St. Mawes Poppy, 110. 

Succulent feeds for dairy cattle, 151. 

Suffolk Down mutton sheep, 210 ; com- 
pared with Southdown, 211. 

Suffolk draft horse, 27 ; compared with 
Percheron, 28. 

Suffolk lard-hog, 268. 

Sultan fowl, 316. 

Sussex cattle, 128. 

Sweeney collar, 100. 

Swine, 257 ; bacon-hog, 259 ; breeding, 
296; breeds of, 259; care, 295 
Cheshire, 269 ; Chester White, 265 
description of Poland China, 261 
diseases, 301 ; dipping, 298 ; Duroc- 
Jersey, 263; fattening, 289; feed- 
ing, 284 ; food for, 285 ; Hampshire, 
266 ; heavy, 282 ; hog cholera, 302 ; 
hog lot, 301 ; hog-wallows, 301 ; 
house, 299 ; improvement, 295 ; 
judging, 275 ; lard-hog, 259 ; Large 
Yorkshire, 271 ; market classes, 281 ; 
Middle Yorkshire, 270; pasture for, 
287 ; points of, 258 ; Poland China, 
260 ; quality, 277 ; quarantine lot, 
302 ; sample rations, 292 ; score- 



Index 



409 



card, 275 ; selecting breeding stock, 
296; soiling, 287; Tarn worth, 272; 
uniformity, 298 ; Victoria, 270. 

Tamworth bacon-hog, 272; compared 

with Large Yorkshire, 272. 
Teeswater cattle, 119. 
Teeth, cattle, 130 ; care of, 85. 
Temperament, in dairy cattle, 135 ; the 

horse, 47. 
Testing milk, 161. 

Texas and western range cattle, 142. 
The Abbess of Torr, 117. 
The Harvester, 14. 
Therm, 67. 
Thoroughbred horse, 4 ; compared with 

Arabian, 10, with Saddle horse, 11, 

with Standardbred, 12 ; description, 

6 ; races, 6. 
Thoroughpin, 40. 
Todd Brothers, 265. 
Todd, S. H., 265. 

Todd's Improved Chester White, 265. 
Toggenburg goat, 221. 
Tompkins, Richard and Benjamin, 122. 
Tormentor's Loss, 109. 
Track records, 8 ; American, 8. 
Training the colt, 90. 
Training-cart, 96. 
Trakehnen horse, 18. 
Transhumantes sheep, 199. 
Trotter, 11. 
Trotting records, 14. 
Tuberculosis in cattle, 172 ; methods of 

infection, 172 ; prevention, 173. 
Tubers and roots, 152. 
Tuley, Joseph, 272. 
Turkey, 317 ; described, 317. 
Two Thousand Guineas course, 6. 
Twynham, John T., 209. 
Types of horses, 3. 



Udder, 136. 
Uhlin, 14. 
Unsoundness of horse, 



38. 



Veal calves, 143. 

Ventilation of dairy barn, 167 ; King's 

system, 167. 
Venus, 120. 
Victoria, 120. 
Victoria hog, 270 ; compared with 

Cheshire, 270. 
Violet, 120. 

Walk-trot-canter horse, 11. 

Wallace, John, 261. 

Warder's Lady, 110. 

War Horse, 25. 

Water, 56 ; function of, 58. 

Watering, the milking cow, 47 ; the foal, 

78 ; the horse, 72. 
Waterloo, 120. 
Water-tanks, 192. 
Watson, Hugh, 124. 
Webb, Jonas, 205. 
Webster, Daniel, 263. 
West Down sheep, 209. 
West Highland cattle, 128. 
Welsh pony, 30. 

White Heifer That Traveled, 120. 
White Strawberry, 120. 
Wild Eyes, 120. 
Wiltshire-horned sheep, 208. 
Winter lambs, 238. 
Wolff-Lehman standard, 66 ; for dairy 

cattle, 144; for beef cattle, 179; 

for the horse, 71 ; for sheep, 233 ; 

for swine, 284. 
Wool, 372 ; tying, 251. 
Woodcrest Meta Vernon DeKol, 103. 
Wright tribe, 28. 
Wyandotte fowl, 314. 

Yards for poultry, 346. 
Yeksa Sunbeam, 115. 
Yorkshire horse, 20. 

Zenoleum, 249. 
Zambora, 14. 



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